V. Pulatov
Intelligence in Galaxy
(Humans, Aliens, UFOs)
Small popular scientific research
2020
Abstract
Humans, extraterrestrials, and unidentified flying objects (UFOs) are considered scientifically in correlation with the account of cosmological times and distances of the Galaxy. The intelligence of people and aliens, being extremely rare, is similar and typical biological phenomenon.
The cybernetic “non-living” intelligence is supposed to be created by people soon, to have probably been made by extraterrestrials in the far past, to be the lasting continuation of their civilizations with the possibility to overcome Galaxy’s distances by means of the magnetic propulsion considered in details and partially explaining the UFOs features on the basis of the physics of electricity and magnetism.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Part One
Intelligent Livings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chapter 1. About Biological Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1. About the People Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2. About the Incarnation of Living Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3. Self-Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4. Stop in Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5. The Mathematics and Computerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6. Brothers in Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 2. Our Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1. Dating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2. Evolution of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3. The Earth in the Sun Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4. “Stars Population” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5. The Acquaintance with the Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.6. Hypotheses about the Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Chapter 3. Extraterrestrial Aliens Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.1. The Probability Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2. Alternative Estimations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.3. About the Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.4. Amazing “Answer” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.5. The Engineering Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Conclusion to the Part One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Part Two
Conveyance in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 4. Rocketry Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.1. The Geographical Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2. Interstellar Travels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3. The Danger from the Cosmic Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.4. Rocketry Monopoly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.5. Alternative Principle Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Chapter 5. The Magnetic Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.1. The Basic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2. The Magnetic Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.3. The Dipole Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.4. The Invention of J.F. Engelberger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.5. The Artificial Angular Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.6. The Force Total Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Chapter 6. The Magnetic Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1. The Energy Storage Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.2. Materials and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.3. The Earth Magnetosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.4. The Magnetic Aerospace Vehicle within the Magnetosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.5. The Competition and Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.6. The Magnetic Space Vehicle out of the Magnetosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Chapter 7. “The Magnetic Fur-Coat” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.1. The Protection from Charged Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.2. The Action on the Surrounding Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.3. The Protection from the Cosmic Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.4. The Interaction with Ground and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.5. Galvanic-magnetic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Conclusion to the Part Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Part Three
“Non-Living” Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Chapter 8. Features of Artificial Intellect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1. The Similarity to the Human Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.2. The Information Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.3. The Memory and Processing Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.4. The Efficiency and Longevity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.5. Opinions and Summing-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Chapter 9. Inhabitants of Interstellar Spaciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.1. To Foresee the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.2. Materials, Technologies, Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.3. The Body Structure or Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.4. The Self-Perfection and Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9.5. About “The Super-Civilization” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Conclusion to the Part Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Part Four
Identify Unidentified Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Chapter 10. Are They Present? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.1. Pioneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.2. Eye-Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.3. Author’s Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
10.4. “The Verification” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Chapter 11. “The Interstellar Spaceship Engine” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11.1. Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11.2. The Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
11.3. Features of Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.4. Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.5.-The-Influence-onto-the-Surrounding-Medium-and-Other-Objects
the Surrounding Medium and Other Objects . . . . . . . . . 242
11.6. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Chapter 12. Signs of UFOs Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12.1. Hypotheses about the UFOs Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12.2. The Interest in Military Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12.3. Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
12.4. Research Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.5. Demonstrative Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
12.6. Interrelations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Conclusion to the Part Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Literature references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Internet references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Introduction
There may be perceived three possessors of intelligence: people, extraterrestrial aliens, and supposedly unidentified flying objects (UFOs). The probability to exist, their origin, activity, and interrelations are the theme of this popular scientific investigation. Fourth intelligence variety may be the artificial cybernetic one forecasted to be created by humans soon.
Would the signs of the mature intelligence remain in the old Galaxy if the intelligence is able to overcome the nature? How would they be expressed and revealed? It is often thought that aliens, who are supposed to be living creatures as a result of some biological evolution, are similar to people. Although our science does not deny the existence of aliens in principle but in fact they are absent. The chance to find aliens with people concurrently is evidently paltry. The cause has to be cleared up.
At the same time, UFOs are present, demonstrating a certain interest in people’s wars and tragic events. If they may be under the suspicion to possess mind then the origin of their predecessors in the past owing to some aliens would be undoubted because such an intelligence would scarcely arise in nature spontaneously, being possibly “non-living” one.
The total computerization of our today’s life inspires the expectation that the “non-living” artificial cybernetic intelligence will be inevitably created in the middle of the current 21st century according to forecasts. Scientists conjectured yet in the past 20th century that the richness of the intellectual, spiritual life of such a “non-living” cybernetic mind would be no less than the human one. Probably, it may even have superiority in the prospect. Quotation marks emphasize this paradox.
The important relation may be perceived between living and cybernetic “non-living” intelligence. The first is the evident creator of the second. At the same time, a good parallel arises for the supposition that UFOs may possess such a “non-living” electronic mind too but they might have existed for millions of years.
So, three bearers of intelligence: people, aliens, and UFOs have certain relation to each other similarly to mutually connected triangle sides. A lot of written information represents mainly a consideration of each one separately but the comprehension of the real situation demands to consider all three intelligence possessors jointly in correlation.
The investigation of aliens and UFOs demands the brief acquaintance with the background on which all events take place, namely the Galaxy and the Universe. The topic is no less fascinating than the aliens themselves, especially taking into account serious theoretical difficulties endured today.
Huge cosmological periods of time are not usually taken into account in attempts to solve the problem of the aliens search. Considerations proceed from only contemporary state that is not enough for the admissible solution and comprehension. It must be improved.
The same may concern cosmological distances of the Galaxy scale. It is impossible to understand, how an alien intelligence could arrive, without the knowledge of physical principle of overcoming these huge distances. Rocketry is not suitable for such flights.
The magnetic propulsion seems to be advantageous for this purpose both for living passengers and especially for the cybernetic subjects. Its main principles are based on the physics of electricity and magnetism and are elucidated in details with explanation also many features of UFOs.
The generally accepted scientific knowledge is dynamic and changeable. The history of science shows that each rebuilding is dramatic. Only one generation of modern people might see consecutively: four generally accepted hypotheses about the Sun and planets origin, three conceptions about the Universe, three definitions of the life. Concerning the origin of a man as a biological species, the view on this subject sometimes changed radically almost every decade.
Having such preconditions, the everlasting theme has to be disclosed… Is it possible in general? But nobody pretends to give some full definite answer. Our aim is only to raise slightly the corner of a coverlet over the mystery.
We must carefully move, turning down fairy tales but being guided by logic and the correct knowledge. The bound must be clear between that, which may really be, and that, which cannot be. We have to proceed from the newest achievements and experience and we must attempt to look at the World and intelligence in it not only from the narrow human point of view but from the certain “cosmic” one.
Inasmuch as the nature is submitted everywhere to the same physical, chemical, biological laws, then the study of our own evolution could clear up some common features which would be in alien development too. The acquaintance with the people’s natural history may help to imagine the similar one of aliens in spite of their absence now. There is only the humanity originated on the base of the life on the Earth.
The scope is vast but the book volume has to be small. All exposed is passed through the prism of author’s outlook. The author strove for the strict logic in each item. What are consequences? If anything seems to be incredible, you would agree or not, but the criticism must be constructive. Please, propose your solution and I will be your opponent.
The composition consists of 4 parts. Each of them possesses essential independence, own numeration of figures, own conclusion, and it may be read separately from others. At the same time, all submits to the common theme, including 5 digressions. The beginning and the end of each one are marked. They have either direct relation to the theme (sections 2.1, 6.5, 10.1) or indirect relation (small digressions in sections 1.4 and 9.2).
The sequence of exposition is such that the intrigue grows gradually from the beginning to the end with the unexpected denouement, similarly to a detective novel that is not usually read in the inverse direction.
The author is grateful to listed readers of consequent 4 versions of the manuscript, for their patience and advice: N.A. Miskin (the reader of the 1st version); I.M. Shipko, T.I. Yatskova, S.V. Kitaeva (readers of the 2nd version); E.S. Eremchuk (the reader of the 3rd version); A.I. Tischenko (the reader of this 4th version). The author is also grateful to O.V. Pulatova, V.B. Kazakov, Eu.V. Pulatov for the technical help, to Dr. V.A. Putienko for giving back the vision by the way of the ophthalmological operation that allowed me to finish this work.
Part One
Intelligent Livings
Chapter 1. About Biological Intelligence
In order to study the biological intelligence origin, we have only one specimen for this purpose, that is, a man. We think that extraterrestrial intelligent living beings or aliens must submit to the same physical, chemical and consequently biological laws as people because of the uniformity of the Universe.
There is no other way, excepting investigation of the people’s mind origin. Similar circumstances would have led to arising of biological intelligence elsewhere. Besides, the human intelligence or people mind has to be considered for the further comparison with the artificial cybernetic one which may have obvious possibilities to surpass the human in the future.
So, what is the intelligence? How does it distinguish people from other living beings? Philosophers discern the higher category “the intelligence (mind)” and lower one “the reason (sanity)”. “Reasonable behavior” is inherent in a certain extent to animals too.
The conception “intelligence” means: 1) the awareness of the existing reality around us even in those parts which are not directly related to the livelihood or vital activity of everybody who has this mind; 2) the awareness of the own existence, of own ego, of a place in this world [40].
It is indifferent to a tiger what stars are and what their importance is. We also think that animals are not aware of their own ego.
The biological definition of mind, intelligence, is done otherwise. The human intelligence is considered to be a certain product of a development of the nervous activity of higher animals. It provides the survival in the struggle for existence. In this sense, the mind stands in the range with other useful acquisitions such as, for example, a long beak or webbed feet.
«The mind is the means by which an organism copes with a difficult situation «problem –solution»…»the mind is adaptation to a more complex behavior» (R. Lee) [50].
So, the living world, which is diverse and plastic, is moving slowly but surely towards the origin of a living intelligence. But His Majesty the Case works too. Environmental conditions varied. They could facilitate, accelerate the process, but also could slow it down, even stop it. They might change a situation sometimes sharply. They may be catastrophic ones.
At the same time, the long-term stability of the environment is not conducive to progress. The change of conditions, especially a disaster, gives impetus to the development. But it can stop the development and even kill all living…
Such was the background on which living human intelligence arose. Its origin in the rich diversity of a living world, like our terrestrial one, was probable but not unavoidable. Terms are difficult to analyze. The problem is reduced to the study of the origin of living intelligent being, a man and his evolution.
Many spears were broken in the debate about the origin of the mind owner, a man. Was he descended from monkey or not?
Truth is a capricious and headstrong person. It does not like imaginary conflicting extremes. The answer is almost always somewhere between the extreme “yes” or “no”.
Man evolved from a creature that was not a monkey and even the ape. He moved on two legs, used primitive tools and fire, but at the same time, he had not the human brain. He is often referred to be the precursor of man.
The Marxist scheme of the origin of man had the attractive simplicity. It was basically a socio-political order. It was necessary to free hands in order to make tools and to stand up for this. Consequently, the brain was in need for the control and for actions planning. In that case, «labor created a man.»
Alas, simple explanations are not always a guarantee of truth. It turned out that such an attractive scheme had nothing to do with reality.
The correct answer has to be confirmed with documents. These are fossils. Their accumulation and the study showed that all three events listed above, that is, walking on two, producing tools, and the big brain, did not take a place jointly. They were not simultaneous, being separated by gaps of time in millions of years.
First predecessors of modern man stood up on legs not later than 4-6 million years ago. The prevailing opinion is that the upright review helped to hunting and to the defense against predators, especially in the tall grass of the African savannah. The gorilla, chimpanzee, and the mongoose meerkats (suricate) can get up “on legs”.
Predators avoid attack on a man who stands upright. They are waiting when he will sit or lie… «Relatives» of our domestic cat (lion, leopard) and a dog (wolf, hyena) thus could also give impetus to walking on two legs.
An alternative view means initially semi-aquatic lifestyle. Monkeys go over water reservoirs (if the crocodile is absent), walking along the bottom on two legs. Such a movement is assumed on dry land in the following.
The first rough tools of «two-legged beast» appeared 1.8-2 million years ago. They were chipped stones with a sharp edge for cutting carcasses of slaughtered or fallen animals. The man predecessor began to work, but he did not still become a man.
Finally, relatively recently, 60-40 thousand years ago, the fossil man, our direct ancestor, got modern «big» brain. There are a lot of competing assumptions about the incentives of this event.
Among the latter ones, it may be noted planning of fighting operations while internecine wars. Who had much mind, that won (and ate) the enemy. However, social factors and family creation, followed by natural selection, might be also possible engines for origin of modern human.
But the great mystery covers the immediate cause of the beginning of the process of «the mind explosion». Human predecessors existed without this thing millions of years. They were in harmony with nature. What did strongly demand an immediate necessity to get mind for survival? Where was this cause earlier?
The knowledge is complicated because of terminology duality. Words «man, homo» in public literature refer to the modern man only. They are not applied to its predecessors with the size of the brain like a three-year old child of people.
Our predecessor is named in biology «homo”. For example, Homo Erectus (upright walking man), Homo Habilis (able man, Fig. 1.1), and so on. There were about 10 species of homo. Some of them existed in parallel and simultaneously with each other during thousands of years. They occupied different ecological niches and they ate different food.
Fig. 1.1. The supposed look of the Homo Habilis (the able man) [80].
But some mixing could happen. General precursor of modern man is considered to be the final hybrid.
At the same time, «Australopithecus» (Fig. 1.2) means «the southern ape». He is considered as early direct predecessor of modern man. He walked on two legs and had brain of 0.5 kilogram. Why was science so rude to him, calling an ape? He would be named Homo Australis, “Southern Man” among other predecessors.
Fig. 1.2. The sculptural portrait of Australopithecus. The reconstruction is executed by T.S. Balueva and E.V. Veselovskaya according to the skull aged of 3 million years [60].
People with big brain are named “Homo Sapiens”. Currently, he is the only intelligent species, heir and successor of all previous ones.
Apparently, a precise border, that separates an intelligent being from unintelligent one, would not exist in general. The certain success was made in recent years in dealing with the so-called apes.
Bonobo (Fig. 1.3), as it turns out, may know about 3,000 words in English and he may understand complex sentences. But his voice system is not sufficiently advanced to allow him to speak.
Fig.1.3. Bonobo [61].
Experts in the study of DNA, for example, the professor Morris Goodman (University in Detroit, USA) considers that the species bonobo and chimpanzee should be attributed to the genus Homo with Latin names Homo Paniscus and Homo Troglodytes respectively.
A common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees existed at 5-7 million or more years ago. «The lines» of predecessors of human being and chimpanzee went away 7 million years ago.
The gorilla (Fig. 1.4), when the gesture language of deaf and dumb is used, may start a dialog with a man and make certain ability to comprehend even abstract concepts.
Obviously, such entities must not be regarded as animals. Their mind is intermediate between a man and animals. Their genome is identical to the people one more than 96 percent [63]. At the same time, their presence helps to imagine the real human predecessors from the past.
If Homo Sapiens were the only intelligent being, such an exclusivity could hinder to understand whether his appearance was unavoidable owing to laws of nature or it was an accidental event. Such a situation would also be conductive to radical and extravagant hypotheses.
Fortunately, there were two more species of intelligent creature: the Neanderthal or Homo Sapiens Neandertalensis (Fig. 1.5) and the «hobby» or Homo Sapiens Floresiensis, miniature dwarf «Homo floresiensis» (Fig. 1.6) which has smaller brain volume than those of chimpanzee.
a b
Fig. 1.5. Reconstruction of the exterior of the Neandertal which is made by M.M. Gerasimov: the woman from Steinheim, Germany (a) and the man from La Ferrassie, France (b) [44].
Fig. 1.6. Reconstruction of the look of “the hobby” (Homo Sapiens Floresiensis) [43].
To distinguish us from them, we call ourselves “Homo Sapiens Sapiens”. It is probably immodest, but the word “intelligent” is applied once to refer to the biological family, the other one to indicate the species.
The history of the study of Neanderthal man is dramatic. As always, there were extremes. First, the remains of Neanderthal man were considered as a human bone, which was distorted because of an illness. He was further elevated to the rank of a direct ancestor of modern man as a stage of his evolution.
In recent decades, the view was dominated that Neanderthal was the independent species of an intelligent person with his speech, culture and religion. He is not only independent but also biologically distant. Evidently, the intelligent creature on the Earth originated twice and the first (Neanderthal) was about 150,000 years earlier than the second one (Homo Sapiens).Accordingly to various estimations, «lines were dispersed away» 0.5-1 million years ago. Therefore, the compatible posterity of both ones was found to be impossible.
It may be again… extreme! This is not mathematics. If Neanderthals and modern men coexisted simultaneously tens of thousands of years on the common territory in parallel, the compatible posterity, albeit rare, could be.
The situation becomes clearer today after researches of the genes complex: the human genome and the Neanderthal one. It turned out that they had a common ancestor really from half a million to one million years ago. Consequently, the species may be considered as different ones.
Nevertheless, the human genome (except for Africans) contains on average of 1-4 percent Neanderthal genes. He did not «die out» as they say sometimes. He came partially into a common human hybrid. Is modern man Neanderthal by 1-4 percent? The percentage 1-4 is deduced from analysis of only two specimens of genome of Neanderthal that is not enough for even modest statistics. This number would be more after new finds. Modern people may have more Neanderthal features, especially when engaged in sport or art.
There are a lot of examples around. The following Fig. 1.7 and Fig. 1.8 represent persons who are subjectively selected from internet for the comparison with Fig. 1.5. I hope they will not take offence at me. To be descendants of the first intelligent man, who has left people behind on hundreds of thousands of years, is even prestigious.
Fig. 1.7. 7-year old Jenna Lona from USA.
Fig. 1.8. Outstanding sportsman and statesman of Russia Nikolai Valuev.
Leaving the gripping topic of Neanderthal history, which is known for quite a lot, we would make essential conclusions for this theme. Primarily, we are not the first kind of intelligent people on the planet Earth. We are second independently arisen one. Neanderthals were ahead of us in that capacity at 200 thousand years.
However, this superiority and more on average of 10-15 percent of the brain volume than we have, was not help them to create a modern society and civilization of intelligent people. The whole vast period of time, in excess of 3-4 times the duration of the existence of the modern Homo Sapiens, the Neanderthal provided food like a hunter. He used only a spear and a club. He had no missile tools (by possibly incomplete modern data).
Secondly, the Neanderthal was of European origin. He also inhabited the Mediterranean, Middle East and West Asia. Ancestors of modern man were not present at that time. Their predecessors inhabited Africa.
Thirdly, after the parallel coexistence with our ancestors in a common area during tens of thousands of years, Neanderthals «disappeared» about 30,000 years ago. Rather, fossil remains had disappeared and also their rites (burial in the side position), their culture, drawings, two-bedroom dwellings.
Modern man changed the surrounding countryside, converting forests of Europe into the fields. He changed the landscape, impoverished fauna. But all this happened 20 thousand years after the disappearance of Neanderthals and it could not be a cause of their extinction.
The direct ancestor of modern humans is considered the Cro-Magnon man (Cro-Magnon cave is in France). Cro-Magnons were more numerous, inventive, better armed, and they were better socially organized than Neanderthals.
Then, the Cro-Magnon people went to agriculture 10-12 thousand years ago in the Near East. On the one hand, changed way of life gave free time for new activities. On the other hand, it required more intensive mental work, inventiveness, action planning, social organization. All this was useful for the progress of mind.
This led to arising of a state, to a written language. The historical period started. All occurred against the background of climatic shocks.
It was impossible to go to agriculture during the European ice age. Procuring food exclusively by hunting and gathering, Neanderthals could not be numerous and they turned out to be in the evolutionary and social stagnation. But the successful struggle for survival in the harsh conditions for more than 200,000 years commands respect.
We see the naturally originated species of intelligent beings, which is stable, durable and prosperous. But due to lack of conditions for further development, it was impossible to create a civilization, literature, and science. There is nothing to say about a creation of the derived artificial intelligence. And he went into oblivion, however, being substituted by the more promising second intelligent competitor which nevertheless makes all this.
In order to create the artificial cybernetic intelligence, a civilization has to become technological. It was done owing to the engineering progress. A considerable role was always played by arms development.
The Cro-Magnon man was better armed than the Neanderthal from the beginning. Throwing device and then bow with arrows excluded the need for a powerful body build. It increased the struggle efficiency and improved chances for survival.
There was a riddle or mystery almost at the finish line. The majority of inventions, which stimulated technological progress, were made in the China.
A partial list of examples: a coal as fuel, blast-furnace and melting of ferrous metal, guns and gun-powder, cannons, rockets (for fireworks), the faience and porcelain, the paper and paper money, typesetting font and typography, the magnetic compass, the earthquake indicator, macaroni… The detailed “Wikipedia” list of China inventions occupies 72 pages.
However, having so impressive breakthrough, the China was in no hurry to build a modern technological civilization and to colonize the rest of the world. It plunged into the self-isolation. Possibly, the matter was the lack of science that is considered to be the main base for the development and for well-being of society. Inventions are like sand in a building material or filler in plastic, the science is like the cement or connecting polymer in plastic…
The science origin began in the antiquity, after that it may be seen mainly in the Great Britain, the France, the Germany, and the Italy. Others joined later. Chinese inventions were used together with own European ones which were relatively few, but important and of late appearance. They were borrowed by China after. The list is more modest. In particular, ball-bearing (Leonardo da Vinci in 15th century), the steam engine, the mechanical clock, the musical instruments, the telescope and the microscope (but glass lenses are invented in China). The colonization of the world was done by Europe. Why was it turned out? The discussion exceeds the limits of this composition.
It is important for our theme and for subsequent calculations in Chapter 3 to conclude, what consequent stages (links, steps) had to be overcome on the way to the creation of the artificial cybernetic electronic intelligence. Let us enumerate them in the reverse order.
This is, firstly, arising of modern technological civilization with the mastery of the energy of falling water, of steam, of electricity, of atomic nucleus; with means of communication, radio, TV, the computerization of life. Total period of time up today would be for several centuries. It began “just now” relatively to cosmic times.
Secondly, the presence of civilization itself was necessary, «the historical civilization», and also a state presence, of writing language arising (5-7 thousand years ago). It was necessary for this, thirdly, to go to agriculture (more than 10,000-12,000 years ago).
Prior to that, in the fourth, the intelligent man was necessary to appear, a hunter and a social being, 60-200 thousand years ago. Rounded numbers correspond to human and Neanderthal and they do not pretend to be exact. The error may be in tens of thousands of years.
Fifth and earlier, the two-legged precursor would arise (4-6 million years ago). His origination was in primates. This biological order has an age about 25 million years and, sixth, it was able to provide the basis for arising of intelligent beings – people.
Please, exclude mentally only one of listed above 6 consequent stages (links, steps) and you will not get the present society which is on the threshold of creating the artificial intelligence. Each of stage coming seems to be occasional because of a small chance of needed new conditions.
The length of the time period of each next stage (link, step) is always sufficiently shorter than a previous one without an exception. This intriguing probable conformity with some unknown law will be met again in other cases on the one hand.
On the other hand, the temptation appears to suppose duration of the period of the modern technological civilization existence (its lifetime) which only begins (it exists 2-3 centuries approximately). This period duration is unknown and debatable [50].
There is in literature the number of 10,000 years which is supposed silently to be between agriculture arising and the historical period beginning. It seems to be too optimistic and increased lifetime duration. It will be met in Chapter 3 and farther.
In general and objectively, term of each stage might be different. The external environment conditions could both stimulate and slow down events or hamper their coming and could not even allow them to come.
One can see that to be intelligent is not enough for civilization building in spite of time period of hundreds of thousands of years (the example of the Neanderthal). You may invent almost everything needed for a technical civilization but you do not create it immediately (the example of the China). And so on.
It is clearly seen how thin the thread is which leads to the modern man and his technological civilization arising. There were several necessary and unavoidable circumstances or stages which are similar to links of a chain or to steps of stairs.
Earlier than the end of this Part One will be read, it may be clear already that a living intelligence, a biological mind, seems to be very rare event in the surrounding World, in the Universe. Too many obligate conditions must be sequentially satisfied.
The “chain” or “stairs” will be prolonged in the past in Chapter 2. It will be understood further how many of such links or steps have to be added to lengthen this chain or stairs farther in the past and how small is the chance for intelligence to arise.
It may be thought that aliens had the similar situation of overcoming several sequential indispensable stages of their preceding evolution. In that case, their intelligence and civilization would be of no less rarity as our one. The correspondent probability estimations will be considered in Chapter 3.
1.2. About the Incarnation of living Mind
It is distinguished schematically: organs of sense that receive information, the center of perception, processing, decision-making, and control (the brain), and «wires», that is, the nerve fibers, some kind of «multicore cable”. These fibers transmit data and commands at a velocity of 0.1-100 meters per second.
The visual sensors (eyes) give to the brain about 90 percent of incoming information. According to the process of formation in the embryo, eyes are the part of the brain which is brought out to the periphery. To be correct, it relates to the eye retina only. The rest part, that is, the eye chamber, is similar to the photographic or television camera. Other variants of eyesight are considered in Section 8.3.
Briefly, each point of the registered light field corresponds to one point (one receptor) on the retina of the eye chamber. So, the vision of living creatures is of the “address” character named by analogy with the memory of digital technology. However, nature «did not invent» the distributed vision, in which the light from every point of the scene is registered in all points of the receiving surface. Conversely, every point of the receiving surface registers light from all observed points, that is, from the whole scene. Such a perception is realized in the optical hologram and it has the technical applications.
Looking ahead (Part Three), it may be noted that the distributed or holographic vision is not a problem for cybernetic devices and consequently for an artificial intelligence.
Hearing is less informative than vision. It needs, correspondingly with the terminology of digital technology, a smaller resource of operational memory and of long-term one. This resource provides the brain, being the center of the perception of all received information, of its evaluation, memorizing, processing, generalization, decisions taking, and commands directing throughout the body.
To be exact, the brain concentrates the human personality. All other organs can be grafted or equipped with prosthesis.
The complaint exists that the human brain is the most feebly understood organ… But how can it be otherwise? Here we come to the first important limitation, a kind of «possibilities ceiling».
Can the human mind or his brain to comprehend in principle and understand its own organization and its work in all details?
Austrian (and later American) mathematician Kurt Gödel (Fig. 1.9) proved his famous “Incompleteness Theorem” at age 25 years in 1931. It relates to the field of meta-mathematics. Without going to its essence, let us concern important consequence for our topic, although it is not universally recognized.
Fig. 1.9. Kurt Gödel (1906-1978) [77].
A system, either computing or intelligent one, cannot completely analyze, project, model, and build new system (artificial brain) of the same complexity level, not to mention about the level of the higher complexity. The essentially lower complexity level is only accessible. We shall return to this difficult and debatable question in Part Three, Section 9.4.
Is it good or bad: to know the limits of the possible? The finiteness of the speed of light, the absolute zero of temperature, etc… What would our knowledge be without it? Such limitations establishing is the important part of knowledge and it was not easily achieved.
Someone considers Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem to be intuitive and to be not quite strict… Nevertheless, we can understand some basic principles of building and of work of the brain… And what is to be done by doctors? The medical treatment and operations are in need…
The theme “the human brain” is very vast. Here a small summary follows.
The brain consists substantially of water on 75 percent. It is not surprising because of the human’s far precursor origin from ocean. All living beings brought to a dry land some water within bodies as a piece of the own initial medium. The human body consists of water on 70 percent in general.
Recently there were reports about experiments that pure liquid water may have something like a memory… What is the water doing in the brain cells? Nobody knows…
Some part of “the brain water” forms part of its fat, which constitutes 60 percent of the brain mass. It is again unknown how the fat works in the brain.
Cerebral mass of a man is on average 1.3-1.4 kilogram. It may be in the range of 1-2 kg. The French writer Anatole France had the brain weight of 1,017 grams. The brain of the Russian writer Ivan Turgenev was of 2,012 grams. But it does not mean that Turgenev was clever 2 times more than France [91].
The thought process is considered to be in the cortex of the brain. The cortex consists of the film with thickness of 3 millimeter and area of 2.2 square meters owing to hollows named convolutions of the brain. The cortex has gray color after death.
The cerebral cortex is composed of nerve cells, neurons. Their number is at different sources from 5 to 150 billion. The numerical difference gives evidence how little we still know… Besides, there may be large individual difference of people.
Each neuron is connected with 1,000-10,000 other ones by means of sprouts, so called synapses. The total number of such connections reaches 1014-1015. The signal of electrochemical nature is transmitted along these connections from a neuron to other one owing to the pulse-frequency modulation. The process can vary widely.
The personality of an individual, his memory, knowledge, character, etc., are enclosed in these electron-ionic bonds that accumulate throughout life the education, training, experience. In the event of clinical death, the interruption of blood supply to the brain for several minutes can lead to the loss of these electron-ionic bonds. The subject’s body may be biologically animated, the brain, neurons and synapses are in their place, the patterns on the fingers, the passport, the tax identification number – everything is there, but the personality has disappeared.
They distinguish hundreds of different classes of neurons which provide in combination a non-binary unstable and asynchronous process. It is profoundly different from the process in the computer. At the same time, the principle of operation of the brain in today’s understanding is applied in technology as “neural networks”.
The very simplified and schematic imagination how a brain works does not mean understanding its processes in many essential details and so deeply as the computer process is known. The last one is absolutely clear in principle for specialists. At the same time, the electronic brain possibilities grow quickly and it promises to surpass a human brain already in the nearest future.
We approach to important question for this topic. Let us try to compare the human brain work with the promising artificial electronic brain similar to the improved computer.
Is the more complex organization of the first necessary and advantageous? Or, oppositely, it presents only an achievable result of the biological evolution and it is some relic relatively to the second one from the engineering point of view. The future science has to give the answer.
Both variants of mind, human and artificial one, have a memory. It is the most important basis for the thought process. The estimation of the average value of the capacity of memory of a human person is conditionally given by various sources: from several laser discs up to 100 terabytes [55]. The contemporary estimation is 74 terabytes in average just in the cerebral cortex only [118].
The human brain differs from the brain of other living creatures, including apes, also owing to the electric activity. The low frequency oscillations (10-20 Hz) are in it during waking, in particular, alpha, beta, and delta rhythms. Other living beings, including chimpanzees and bonobo, have in their brains no delta rhythms, only alpha and beta.
Human brain needs sleep during totally 1/3 of an individual life. It is the certain shortcoming in the comparison with the electronic brain. Besides, a great amount of energy is also in need. Being only about 2-2.5 percent by weight of the human body, his brain consumes 20 percent or more of the energy obtained from food. Similarly, it takes 20 percent of oxygen and, consequently, 20 percent of blood. He need clean air and water.
One-year-old child brain can consume all to 70 percent instead of 20. And if a child is 5-8 years old, and he is highly gifted or the infant prodigy with the brain, which is not inferior to an adult one, how much is the necessary energy for him? Possibly, it may be also more than usual 20 percent.
1.3. Self-Criticism
All species of human predecessors lived on the Earth at least several ten times longer than the modern man. They evolved apparently slower than he did. Consequently, they were more stable and harmonious in the biological sense. And they resisted better him against conditions change.
A man would be considered as analogous being “endowed” with his brain relatively recently by standards of evolutionary processes. Homo Sapiens is a relatively young species. A big «animal», «natural» component would be expected equally with mental and spiritual one on the one hand.
On the other hand, the mind possession may create both discomfort («Woe from Wit») and the owner desire to free himself from his mind if only in a temporarily mindless state.
The human intelligence, as the mind of a person, may feel discomfort because of own living shell. On the one hand, he needs «a spiritual food»: the scientific knowledge of the world, religion, music, art, literature. All enumerated is not necessary for the physiological functioning of the body.
On the other hand, an ironic attitude sometimes appears to the functions of a living organism, such as a physiological functions and sex that is reflected in the swear-words of some nations.
Paroxysms of mind show themselves in fashion, in a critical relation to own biological exterior. Features and properties, which were rational for survival, for procreation, and which were in perfect harmony with the esthetic feeling millions of years, are now declared «ugly”.
The mind discomfort occurs also from the consciousness of the inevitability of the death by each individual, of the foresight about the downfall into non-existence, whereas we believe that animals do not think about it.
There is a contradiction between the mind and its living shell. The situation is reflected in several proverbs, as «the spirit is strong, the flesh is weak», «Woe from Wit» and so forth. This contradiction shows a new quality of mind among the functions of a living being, the quality that exceeds the bounds of the struggle for survival.
It may induce someone to think whether a living organism of the Earth or some extraterrestrial one (it is of no importance) the only possible or the best bearer of the new quality, the intelligence. Is the biological shell of a living creature (a man, an alien) the wholly convenient for the new factor, the mind?
Erich Fromm’s book «The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness» [12] can be perceived as a cool look of the living intelligence at psychological shortcomings of its owner, a man, and at consequences of the animal origin.
E. Fromm paid attention also to the enigmatic circumstance. The power over the huge community of people, practically unlimited power, may be entrusted to an insane dictator. The examples are well-known.
Biological intelligence of living beings, that is, people, may demonstrate the illogicality. Some actions may be accomplished systematically at will, consciously, and they may be disadvantageous or even harmful for the individual and his posterity. The decisions may deliberately be made which are known to be inexpedient.
The role of emotions is great. Striving for immediate satisfaction of desires is often ignoring the obvious negative consequences. Illogical unreasonable actions are inherent in human communities, even in nations and states.
Aggressive behavior is a relic of animal origin. This behavior gave a certain advantage in the struggle for existence. It continues to show itself in the human society, though it has become irrelevant.
A number of scientific problems are not solved for a long time in spite of efforts of generations of gifted researchers and large groups. To think that the solution does not exist is not correct because of absence of a theoretic barrier.
We don’t know relic features of aliens. However, they have to be of an animal origin too. All listed above is not excluded for them.
The artificial intelligence may be free from biological features connected with the origin from animals. Emotions seem to be in need for this intelligence to a lesser degree. Therefore, to imagine its thinking process is difficult.
It is interesting what look would the human mind have from the point of view of cybernetic one after its progress? Would “the self-criticism” then be turned into “the criticism”?
All foregoing in this Section 1.3 may be perceived as the author’s subjective opinion. All this has no strict proof. Now we pass to the question which has objective and logical explanation.
1.4. Stop in Development
No one organ of higher animals developed as fast as the brain of the Homo Sapiens. The last one reached his maximum volume 40-60 thousand years ago. Then its average volume began gradually to diminish.
Why did the growth of the human brain stop in development? Why had not the man become a superman? As in all, that relates to the mind and the brain, here are different competitive elucidations. It is rational to start from the solid one proposed by an outstanding scientist.
Ernst Walter Mayr (1904-2005), the German and later American biologist (Fig. 1.10), explained that the further growth of the brain of people was stopped because of ceasing to be encouraged with the reproduction [24].
Fig. 1.10. Ernst Mayr – Professor at Harvard University, a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States [69].
The man is a biological entity. His existence is impossible without the procreation with consolidating of useful acquisitions. The last 60-40 thousand years of stability of the brain talk about «recognition by the nature” that “the design is rational» and a further mind growth is not in need.
If E. Mayr is right, the discovery of this limitation of the brain progress would have the importance in human biology like the finite speed of light and the absolute temperature zero in physics. The Mayr’s explanation of limiting both the growth of the brain and consequently of his mental abilities may be treated as the important scientific achievement. Charles Darwin explained all the living world evolution but Ernst Mayr cleared its limit. It turns out to be the second limitation after the Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem (Section 1.2). Let us call this limitation “the Mayr’s Law” for the sake of brevity.
The cybernetic intelligence need not the biological reproduction and therefore it does not submit to the Mayr’s Law. Limits of abilities of the cybernetic mind may have only the physical basis.
All living beings have small individual variations in every quality. Each their quality is possessed in different degree. Even a small advantage in something gives an advantage in procreation. Then the growth of number of its owners in a population leads to the new quality of all species. A man presents no exception.
A few people are born in every generation with slightly higher mental abilities, or with the improved brain. The certain variant seems “to be proposed” and it can be “accepted” or “rejected”. The same was at the origin of modern man. The increased mental ability gave an advantage. How is it going today?
Here is small 1st digression of those promised in the introduction.
Bright abilities far beyond the average human level are usually seen already in childhood. The author was interested in highly gifted children or infant prodigies. There was the most exciting and spectacular phenomenon – musical or vocal prodigies with the world glory owing to the internet.
Posted online video of appearances and recordings of each person can be arranged in the chronological order. It turns up to be concert film. Such 20 “films” about 8 persons were fulfilled by the author with subjective comment.
As it is found to be, the fate of majority of these children is tragic [22]. However, most prominent composers were earlier a child prodigy as a rule. But this is an exception. Most of others have supplemented the rank of «the ordinary people”.
The percentage of suicide among gifted ones is 2 times higher than that of other children [82]. The fact of the tragic fate of gifted children is eloquent. There is a resistance instead of encouragement. We can think that the situation is similar not only in the musical sphere. It is objective that the human intelligence will not continue to develop in the future. The evolution of human abilities and brain is closed under a firm lock and key.
You can also see a large number of examples that the contribution of prominent intellectuals into the continuation of the species is substantially smaller than the average one. Ernst Mayr also mentioned this fact [24].
It turns out that the Mayr’s Law continues to work at the present time. Here is the end of the 1st digression. We pass to a brief review of several alternative opinions.
First alternative point of view, «The artificial behavioral selection» is the assumption of S. Savelev from The Institute of Human Morphology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences. It is as follows.
The community of predictable highly specialized mediocrities is more manageable and profitable. Society always sacrificed «troublemakers» for the sake of stability and it got rid of too clever individuals. A silent worker is preferable. It is like «The Plato’s Ideal State» at the brainchild of the era of slavery. Totalitarianism flourished in the Middle Ages, in particular, in the Byzantium Empire. It worked in the 20th century. The slave labor of own citizens as forced prisoners was used in this case.
Who was «lucky» to live in this social system, one understands its anti-human essence. Of course, the sparks of intelligence like gifted children are to nothing for the totalitarianism. S. Savelev’s hypothesis cannot be denied perspicacity.
However, as the 20th century showed, totalitarianism leads to moral and physical degradation. It did not happen in the primitive society at the time of the birth of Homo Sapiens. Furthermore, namely the intelligent individual was then necessary for survival.
Second alternative point of view: the increased brain would require increasing the percentage of energy which is derived from food as well as the blood supply. All this may be near the limit of the possibility of the modern man organism. The restriction to the brain growth is purely physiological.
One could argue against it firstly, that the increased human brain in the past did not prevent the species to exist for many generations. Secondly, the child’s brain takes more energy and oxygen than an adult brain (to 70 percent in the age of 1 year) and his body is completely harmonious and viable.
The third alternative point of view: the brain heightened volume could temporarily compensate for some lack of his perfection in other directions. For example, it could compensate too small size of the area of the cerebral cortex because of lack of the number and depth of brain convolutions. Improving of these features did not demand the brain further growth.
Fourth point of view: the volume of the brain is not associated with mental abilities in general. The example of two writers above shows this. The abilities growth from generation to generation is possible without increasing the volume of the brain. Reserves are large and they have not been studied… The Floresiensis People or Hobbits exemplify the same owing to their brain smaller than that of a chimpanzee.
Why had not human predecessors become intelligent with their 0.5 kg brain?
The fifth alternative point of view is proposed by the author himself in the enthusiasm from the number of previous ones. The brain spends the main part of his resource for processing of visual information, compilation and creation of visual meaningful image.
On the one hand, the superiority of the brain size of cetacea, including dolphins, may be some indirect confirmation. Their brain has to construct an image, combining visual (optical) and audio information («echolocation»), and possibly in combination with the hearing.
On the other hand, a digital photograph or video requires the same amount of memory resource of the computer as the book which is the result of the concentrated mental work for a long period of time (years may be).
Therefore, one can assume that the thought process takes away not too much resource from visual one. In this respect, thinking, mind, intelligence, looks to be some modest superstructure on the receipt and processing of external, mainly visual information by the brain. Giving a complete visual image, the brain is not only sufficient but also may have apparently some reserve for the thought process.
And then you can think about our “smaller brothers”, whose vision may not be worse than human one… Then it turns out that their mind is not so weak, dear Homo Sapiens!
The abrupt increase of the volume growth of the brain in humans 60-40 thousand years ago may not be associated with a mental abilities growth in general. It needs a proof.
Evolutionary limited cognitive brain abilities, that were sufficient in the past during tens of thousands of years, became rather narrow in the era of scientific and engineering progress, of new technologies. The answering reaction of mankind followed.
1.5. The Mathematics and Computerization
An important function, which is acquired by the human mind, is thinking. We will look onto several interesting features or properties of the people thought without going in the interpretation of this process from the point of view of different philosophical schools. The author does not want to join himself to each of them.
Firstly, thought is picturesque. We mentally envision images of objects while thinking…
Secondly, since the speech origin, thinking is associated with words which mean objects and concepts. The letters and the sounds of their pronunciation are constructed in a row, in line, to form words. Those again are constructed in line phrases. Phrases follow one another. A thought has the mainly linear character.
It is the premise of mathematics! It was rightly said that mathematics is the language (Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin). Thoughts are linearly moving from a cause to the consequence. It is difficult for us to comprehend the processes or events, when there are a lot of causes and several consequences on each step in their weaving and unequal role.
Thirdly, human thinking is emotional. Emotions are borrowed from the animal kingdom. «Surprise is the first of all the passions» (Rene Descartes). «Doubt is mother of the truth» (he again). «Confidence is arising of the pleasure from the idea of a future or past thing, in which the cause for doubt has been disappeared» (Baruch Spinoza).
Fourthly, an important aspect of thinking should be considered as a foresight and forecast (a search for food by animals, the organization of hunting by predators and by primitive man). Not continuing listing, please, note the following.
Human thinking, which is received by man as a means of struggle for survival, is not enough for the perfection his activity in the scientific and technical progress. Imaginative thinking is bad to facilitate the identification and the study of quantitative relationships and dependences.
The mathematics is necessary. It has one of its purposes to be a tool for the imperfect human brain to perform various numerical operations and take into account the laws of quantitative relationships.
«Science begins where a number is.» «Inconceivable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences» (Eugene Wigner), is the result of lifting of people’s thinking to the next step above the animal level.
Thus, one of the sides of mathematical knowledge is some compensation of the weakness of the human brain. In this sense, our human mathematics would not be useful everywhere or be general one for the Universe, as they sometimes think.
It is a kind of appendage of the human mind. It is «adapted» to a man and it is created by himself for own need. It gives to a person the opportunity to operate with actions and formulae without a proof of validity for each application.
Some alien intelligence could get his mathematics in other concepts, terminology and to be different from our one. The mathematics of aliens may be the most interesting of all that they should have.
Mathematics birth by human began long ago. It seems to be conforming to laws of nature. Similarly, the computing means appeared. As it is well known, they were firstly mechanical and after that they became to be electronic ones.
These last developed later in direct depending on the element base of electronics. They also stimulated the search for new technical solutions and components: from vacuum tubes to transistors, microprocessors, ferromagnetic modules, magnetic and laser disk drives and so on.
Limited mental abilities of a human person become uncomfortable at a certain stage of development of the civilization. It is revealed in different directions such as labor, commercial, scientific work and housekeeping, in the service and amusements, in the military sphere.
A set of electronic assistants appeared in response. They are calculator, then the computer whose architecture is continuously improved; household machines, phones, DVD players, digital cameras, all kinds of automatic machines, robots, etc.
In particular, the computerized strategic and tactical command appears in the military. There are different types of fighting and reconnaissance technique, all kinds of guided weapon equipped with «intelligence».
On the one hand, there is a continuous process of miniaturization of devices of digital electronics with simultaneous power consumption reducing. On the other hand, there is the process of equipping with the new «peripheral» devices, sensors; hearing, for example, to identify the voice of the owner and to receive commands; speech, vision, touch and even sexual characteristics.
It is strange that the late one is in interest for designers. It is not necessary for electronic cybernetic devices. This is only in need for procreation of living beings. But their behavior, for example, might be simulated in such a manner.
Systems appear that can learn, estimate a situation, and make a decision. The processing speed and memory volume are continuously improved. But the memory is a fundamental base of the thinking process.
The tempo of progress and the forecast of the element base possibilities show that the amount of memory is not excluded that may exceed that of a man. This amount is the main condition for thinking. There is «the conversion of quantity into quality» or the appearance of the thing which has a new quality.
This thing is the cybernetic electronic intelligence. It is also called «the artificial intelligence» in the sense that it is created by people. And it is built from first steps «in own image and likeness.» Is it rational?
It should be noted that the computerization and then the artificial intelligence creation are the natural and almost inevitable stages of development of human society. ”Non-living” intelligence has to be created by living one with a high degree of probability. However, this probability cannot be objectively of 100 percent somewhere else.
Artificial Intelligence or cybernetic mind is very likely the natural product of its biological creator at a certain stage of scientific and technological development. Our situation with the cybernetic intelligence creation would be typical. Some alien mind could make the same because of analogous objective circumstances. Such is the logic of evolution.
At the same time, the cybernetic electronic mind has no limitation which is peculiar to the biological one. The Mayr’s Law is not directing for it. Its development would be more extensive and lasting. The derivative cybernetic intelligent civilization would be the evident continuation of the “parental” biologic one with the possibility to be even more long-time and much mobile than “parents”.
The topic of artificial intelligence will be continued in the Part Three, Chapter 8. Now we return to living beings.
1.6. Brothers in Intelligence
Previous sections represent the attempt to generalize our own development and to spread it onto alien intelligent beings. Who are they?
Anthropoid creations were in human consciousness from time immemorial. Some people with a dog head, centaurs, mermaids, and so on lived in the people imagination from ancient times. But their exterior was always imagined to be similar to people.
It is difficult to us to go away from the habitual look which becomes inherent for everybody. There was recently the discussion about the theoretical possibility of the mind origin on the base of dinosaurs. What might the exterior of such intelligent creatures be? Is it logical to imagine them (Fig. 1.11) to be similar to people?
Fig. 1.11. The attempt to imagine the exterior of “the intelligent dinosaur” [116].
The intelligent creatures from other worlds were always imagined to be also similar to people. Although it is not evident, the saga about anthropoid aliens lives firmly among people. It has a long history.
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) believed that other people live on all the celestial bodies, including stars. He mounted the bonfire because of this idea in the 1600, the last year of the 16th century.
The French astronomer Camille Nicolas Flammarion (1842-1925) excluded stars from inhabited celestial bodies. But he imagined all planets to be settled without any proof or even considerations. His popular scientific books in many languages were edited during century. It was one of causes why the romantic belief in extraterrestrial aliens possessed people’s minds so a long till our days.
The clearness appeared little by little that the huge gaseous spheres of great planets would not be inhabited together with their satellites having no atmosphere.
The last hope was relied upon the nearest planets Mars and Venus. These planets are not gaseous spheres and they are stone-iron ones similarly to the Earth. True, their distance from the Sun is less advantageous than that of the Earth. Correspondingly, the conditions are worse than on the Earth. Nevertheless, they were under the suspicion as inhabited ones during whole century!
Please, imagine billions of years of geological and biological evolution in parallel with our one but under very different conditions and events on planets. Would the origin of intelligent creatures from these planets be simultaneous with our one to associate with each other? Does the probability tend to zero or not?
Finally, it becomes clear in 20th century that the Mars surface is the cold desert with the ice instead of water and with very weak atmosphere, the Venus is the scorching world without liquid water. The rivers of the liquid lead would flow on the Venus!
The matter is not the absence of some signs of an intelligent activity somewhere, including observations by means of the direct presence of the engineering devices on the place. Our own world, the planet Earth, is also looking uninhabited, being observed from other planets. The matter is that conditions for the complex life existence are absolutely not suitable everywhere around the Earth and they may be very rare in general. But we talk about living beings.
Our expectation advances now from intelligent human-like extraterrestrial neighbors to the bacterial life on neighboring planets. Is this expectation hopeful?
It is evident that the discovery of only “primitive” life anywhere in Solar System would be the gigantic achievement. However, what number of planets must be looked over for finding the second life after the Earth? We have only 7 here and several satellites. Should the statistics become anger with our expectation?
The expected candidates for the unicellular “primitive” life are now the planet Mars and big Jupiter’s satellites. The word “primitive” is in quotation marks because the minimum number of genes of a living cell is equal to 256 [102].
Consequently, probable aliens have to be carried in our imagination away from the Solar System to far exoplanets near other stars. We must understand the size of such a leap. And to think about the nearest stars (Section 2.4) is not modest! The estimation of possible interstellar distances overcoming is put aside to the Part Two.
Let us try to look on the problem of the alien exterior from the biological point of view. The nature demonstrates the amazing diversity already on the unicellular level. The interesting example is in Fig. 1.12. Unicellular creatures Radiolaria dwell in the warm upper layers of the ocean water. These plankton organisms have identical way of life and food. However, their exterior diversity is huge.
Fig. 1.12. Examples of skeleton of Radiolaria (viewed at high magnification) [97].
What would the diversity be, and also plural variants of the body structure, exterior, livelihood of the multi-cellular and then intelligent living beings of billions cells, especially in different conditions, and with a different history of the evolution?
Nobody knows the answer. There are two ways for the weak attempt.
On the one hand, there is the certain logic in the living body construction. If the body has symmetry then it would have the minimum number of convenient limbs for movement to be equal to four. Organs of vision, hearing, and so on, must be placed near the brain, which is necessary for fast information receiving and processing, as his peripheral parts, probably in pairs. Something similar to head, consequently, should be, etc.
Conversations about the biological convergence have to be heard with a care. Natural extraterrestrial living beings, for example, which swim in water, would be long and of the streamlined form. The shark, the ichthyosaurus and the dolphin are similar in exterior but they are absolutely different organisms.
The ichthyosaurus breasted with air and it gave birth to its young with “tail forward” as the dolphin. But it had no dolphin’s sound location and it used his huge eyes in the dark depth.
Going on the dry land is the quite another matter. The main problem is to resist to the gravity force, having the body of the 70-80 percent of water. The skeleton is necessary for the quick movement. The diversity of forms of exterior is again difficult to imagine.
In passing, the dry land on the Earth may be of the extreme rarity among other planets in the Galaxy. Planets, which are wholly covered with water (as Jupiter satellite Europe), seem to be more plural ones. The water way of life of aliens is therefore probable…
There is the interesting example from the Earth’s biology. The exterior of the elephant is the result of the second, recurrent going onto the dry land after the evolution of the land animal in water. Would we rightly imagine the elephant exterior if he had not been known together with his predecessors?
On the other hand, all the matter in the Universe is sufficiently uniform, including organic one. Is it possible that living being structure and arising are initially defined in the substance structure? Science cannot answer this question. On the contrary, living world shows, as it was told, the amazing variety of forms of unicellular level! What to say then about the complex multi-cellular creatures…
So, talks about the biological convergence are not pertinent. The convergence means very similar conditions of the environment. It is not hopeful when conditions are not similar because of different planets consideration.
Consequently, when you hear about observation of “extraterrestrial aliens”, which are very similar to people, it would be suspected to be either a hoax or the conscious and purposeful mimicry. We shall return to this question in the Part Four.
At the same time, inasmuch as the intelligent aliens from other planets are living biological creatures, then we may suppose some their features and not too little.
Their bodies consist mainly of water because life had arisen in water. They are mortal. The evolution would be otherwise impossible. They must be of both sexes. Such organisms have advantages in evolution (the cybernetic theory of sex exists).
Their mind is evolutionarily limited (Mayr’s Law). For this reason, the creation of artificial cybernetic intelligence by them has to be in need as a result of mathematics and computerization because of the brain limited capacity (sections 1.4 and 1.5).
Space voyages also would be difficult for them because of moving off ecological system of their planet, because of the huge duration and the danger of interstellar flights. (More about that will be in Part Two, in particular, Section 4.2).
The situation demands to acquaint with the environment, with the background on which all the events would be analyzed. It is not sad. All in the Universe: galaxies, stars, planets, life origin is no less fascinating than living mind and aliens themselves. The review is shortly expounded in Chapter 2 in this Part One.
After that we may return in Chapter 3 to the scientific estimation of the numerical probability of aliens to exist somewhere. There will be also told about the search of the observed signs of their activity.
Besides, aliens would exist anywhere in the past with more probability than simultaneously with us (Chapter 3). We all like talking about the great power of mind. Did the extraterrestrial old intelligence leave some noticeable signs of the own existence? Chapters 9-12 of this popular scientific research are the attempt to answer whether the confirmation of alien’s existence in the past would be possible…
Concerning the visits, the corresponding engineering for flights and passengers abilities will be reviewed in the Part Two.
Finally, when all author’s intention is known, we may pass to Chapter 2, without which all listed is difficult to discuss.
Chapter 2. Our Environment
2.1. Dating Principles
Section 2.1 represents pertinent 2nd digression. We meet in literature at every turn, from the geology and natural sciences to the history of civilization, the great time periods of thousands, millions and even billions of years. On the one hand, a nice illusion appears of the continuation of a short individual own life duration over these time periods, of an observation these gigantic times from own modest position and interval in time. But on the other hand, on what grounds are these numbers?
The problem existed always. For example, the relative dating in geology used the depth of the rock bedding. The more is the depth, the older is the rock. Remains of living beings also helped to date no later than to 600 million years ago. This situation was to 20th century.
The absolute dating, that is the determination of the numerical age of a rock was based on taking into account the velocity of the sedimentation. Of course, results were not correct. To find way out, geologists distinguished in rocks firstly “primitive” bacterial life (about 3.8 billion years ago as it was clarified later) and secondly “more advanced” life of a kind “algae” (approximately 2 billion years ago that was clarified later) [41].
The turning point came after nuclear physics establishing to the end of the first half of 20th century. The velocity of disintegration of some radio-active element (its amount of atoms must be great enough) is considered to be constant.
For example, one half of a pure uranium-238 disintegrates onto lead-206 and helium during 4.51 billion years. This period of time is near to the Earth or the Sun age. One half of amount of uranium-235 disintegrates onto lead-207 and helium during 0.71 billion years. This period is near to the time of existence of the complex multi-cellular life. One half of thorium-232 disintegrates onto lead-208 and helium during 14.1 billion years. The period of time is near to the Universe and Galaxy age according to the modern concept.
If the mineral is the closed system and it has not lost the amount either the residual radio-active element or products of its disintegration, then the mineral age would be determined owing to the numerical relation of their amount. Listed three methods are usually used together. But it is still not all.
Please, note that every radio-active isotope produces only “own” stable isotope of the lead with its own number of atomic mass. The relation of amounts of uranium-238 and 235 is the same in all minerals, rocks and it is equal to 137.7. Consequently, the determination of amount of lead isotopes on the mass-spectrometer adds this fourth method too.
There is one more isotope lead-204 which is not the product of enumerated nuclear reactions. Its amount is taken into account.
The coincidence of the measurement results of all four methods confirms the evidence of the mineral to be quite intact, of the analyses rightness, and of the authenticity of the absolute age determination.
Methods of “the radio-active dating” are plural. One of them is the radio-carbon method. It is widely used for absolute dating within last 60 thousand years. The period duration corresponds to the human origin, to the primitive man existence and to historic period (about 7,000 years). The method is as follows.
The nuclear reaction always occurs in the Earth atmosphere owing to cosmic rays, especially to the Sun radiation. The small amount of the nitrogen-14 in the atmosphere is transformed into the radio-active carbon-14. The last gets to living beings (animals and plants) while breathing process. The small constant amount of radio-active carbon-14 is maintained within an organism during all its life.
However, new atoms of radio-active carbon-14 are not getting into organism after its death. The contained radio-active carbon-14 disintegrates with the velocity one half of the total amount during 5,730 years. The high-sensitive radiometric devices allow measuring the relative amount of the residual radio-carbon-14. The time duration after the living being death is calculated.
The absolute age of organic remainders (bone, wood, fabric) may be obtained under the important condition. The specimen must be taken from a burial. It must not be enriched with the additional radio-carbon, for example, while the frequent use of people.
“The radio-active dating” always has a certain error. It is usually noted the time interval on which the absolute age would be. It is amazing that there is other absolute dating with this interval equal to one year!
Such an exotic method is named “dendrochronology”. The alternation of thickness of wood layers, which are growing every year on each other, depends on the world climate variations. The cut piece of wood is polished and scanned in order to represent as graph. The computer program searches the analogous alternation of layer thickness on the standard graph to be the same as on the specimen. The more years number is scanned the better is the accuracy and authenticity of the result.
The standard graph scopes last 7,000 years. It corresponds to the duration of the historical period. The base was trees Sequoyah on the North-American continent. Their age may be of several thousands of years.
For example, the wooden carriage-way in “the Ancient Novgorod” was dated in such a manner between 1414 and 1415. It turns out that the Ancient Novgorod may be not really ancient. The end of 2nd digression.
2.2. Evolution of Life
“To prepare the ragout of a hare, as a minimum, the hare is in need”. The living intelligence is inherent in living beings. They are the product of the life evolution.
Obviously, the life appearance is necessary first of all. There are many celestial bodies in our Solar System and a lot of exoplanets of nearest stars were discovered later. However, the life is still known only on the Earth. There is no proof about a life presence at any celestial body, excluding the Earth. To estimate how rare the life is, we have to understand its essence and the process of origination, having again only one example.
So, what is the life, how was it originated? What is the difference between living and non-living? The difficulty-hardest questions of cognition are. The opinion exists that it is at the limit of the science possibilities in general. There may be no clear boundary between living and non-living. The life represents one of properties of the matter or one of its possible states. The attempts to penetrate in the mystery of life were always.
Doctor Paracelsus (1493-1541), in Latin “Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim”, was sure that mice themselves are originated in a dirty laundry. Subsequent half a millennium did not bring the exhaustive scientific elucidation what the life is.
I.N. Oparin and J.P.S. Holdane proposed in 1922 the hypothesis that the life appeared in the water of natural reservoirs. There was some “broth” of different organic substances. These last ones joined onto complex polymers under action of volcano, lightning, ultra-violet radiation of the Sun, etc. Fragments of simplest cells arose in such a manner.
S. Miller in 1950 synthesized the complex organic molecules in experiment with the electrical discharge in simple gases.
S. Fox with colleagues showed after 1960 that heating waterless (anhydrous) mixture of amino-acids (the main components of albumens) to 170 of Celsius degree made up compounds with the molecular mass to 300,000. There were among them to 18 amino-acids from 23 ones which are in living organisms. S. Fox washed well the resulting mixture with the hot water and received a lot of micro-spheres. Their covering shells reacted to external influence like the same of a living cell.
E.K. Marheenin and N.E. Podkletnov from Institution of Volcanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences found during 1970 years a lot of organic compounds in the volcanic ash that might be the base for more complex compounds [39].
All listed achievements and similar ones did not answer questions how the percent of “successful constructions” could increase in the Chaos of occasional products of chemical reactions and how the natural selection could work. And it is not all. Pretenders to be living are always short-lived ones. The percentage of “successful constructions”, as products of an occasion, could again fall in following generations. What is in need? Evidently, it was in need: to memorize useful properties, to transmit them to the posterity together with directions for organism construction of the substance of the environment. The modern life definition is expressed as 7 items below.
1. The life is surely a process. First of all, it is the process of the interchange of substances or metabolism. The substance is taken from the environment and the waste is given back. The same is with energy.
2. The living organism is usually protected from the environment with some shell.
3. Living creatures have the keeper of the programmed information about an organism building of the substance of the environment, about the sequence of this building, about organism functioning, including the procreation.
4. Process of the reproduction includes the transmission of “program keeper” or “the heredity apparatus” to more plural posterity.
5. The heredity apparatus is plastic. It perceives changes, preserves them with the further transmission to the posterity.
6. Changes, which are favorable for survival, may lead to the superiority of their possessors among the population of living creatures owing to the process of the natural selection that may in such a manner provide the evolution.
7. The lack of only one feature from 6 enumerated ones does not allow the subject to be considered as living.
It is evident that the cybernetic individual with the electronic brain does not correspond to all items. To characterize it as “non-living one” would be right.
One may see that the previous old definition of life is now placed in the 1st item. The heredity is regarded today as of paramount importance to define the life. It is not amazing. Living creatures are short-lived but the existence of a species is relatively long. The main factor for life establishing is the information reproduction.
The physical possessor of the heredity information is molecules of DNA. They are really giants of the molecular world. They have the form of long spiral twisted threads. All the heredity information is written on them similarly to laser disk or magnetic tape. This information is read or it is “translated” from DNA.
In what manner were such complex molecules originated? The possible answer came lately. DNA concerns to the category of sugars. It is proved experimentally that the sugars origin is “the simpler task” for the nature than even the origin of the albumen and protein concerned above. The auto-catalysis helped, that is, the acceleration of the chemical reaction owing to participation of one of resulting products. The simplest sugars would appear already in the cosmic dust disk which planets originated from [30].
Other and exotic theories of life on the other element base must ground the alternative structure of the “heredity apparatus”. Our “carbon-water” life is built of the organic substance which is present in cosmic space everywhere. There is no logical alternative to DNA. Therefore, it is not in need to suppose other theoretical life variants during searching it on other planets that simplifies the task [30].
The next problem is to explain in what manner the DNA evolution went and how joining occurred with albumen to create the first primitive living cell. Prompting is hovering in the air both in the literal and metaphorical senses.
Viruses, the smallest creatures, which are not usually discernible by means of the optical microscope and are able to penetrate through filters, have the “heredity apparatus”: DNA or RNA. However, they have no own albumen and therefore they can procreate only by the parasitical way, using albumen of someone else living cell.
Having no albumen and being deprived of metabolism, viruses do not correspond to 1st item of the life definition above. So, somebody may consider viruses to be non-living ones. At the same time, viruses correspond to requirements of following important items 2-6 (the heredity) to be living creatures. Consequently, they represent the notorious bridge between living and non-living!
So, on the one hand viruses procreate as parasites. They are inculcated into living cells to use someone else’s albumen. On the other hand viruses are more primitive than cells themselves. Therefore, first viruses might be older than first cells. In what manner did viruses procreate in the times when there were no living cells? Evidently, the only way was to use albumen microspheres which were similar to received by S. Fox in his laboratory. Was here a good chance of joining RNA with albumen? And so the primitive first living cell would begin to work, submitting to the natural selection.
One may see that the situation with the life origin problem is not hopeless. This problem would be brought to the virus origination. The artificial living cell, which is originated in a laboratory, would be probable in the current 21st century.
Life trails were found in the oldest rocks with the age to 3.8 billion years on Southern West Greenland. The more old rocks are not found on the Earth. Nobody knows anything about the life during the period from the Earth origin 4.6 billion years ago to 3.8 billion years ago, which corresponds to the found oldest rocks.
However, bacteria remains were found in meteorites. For example, the photograph on Fig. 1.13 is made with the scanning electronic microscope by Doctor Richard Hoover, NASA, while the research of meteorites Alais, Ivuna, Orguel.
Fig. 1.13. The fossil in the meteorite has the shape of a bacterium. The segment arranged left in the bottom is of 1/1,000,000 of millimeter in the photograph scale [98].
This discovery is very significant for the life origin problem. Refusing from the bacterium origin in the meteorite itself, let us think that the meteorite may be the product of collision of celestial bodies. Three supposed variants are below in order of the great diminution of probability.
1. The meteorite is beaten out from the Earth itself, for example, 4.36 billion years ago. Such a collision is considered in the next Section 2.3. In this case the age of the oldest trails of the Earth life may be risen from 3.8 to 4.36 billion years. The life age becomes nearer to the planet age. The numerical probability of life to be of the local origin is increased.
2. The meteorite is beaten out from other planet of the Solar System, for example, from Mars. In that case the extraterrestrial life existence would receive the confirmation. The proof would be finding the analogous fossils in rocks of either Mars or other planets.
3. The meteorite is the product of the collision of some exoplanet. The probability of such an event might be negligible small in comparison with the import from a planet of the Solar System. In that case, imported life could be older than the Earth itself and the Solar System.
The theory existed always that the alien life origin was somewhere and it was transmitted after on the Earth from the external space. The situation with meteorites shows that firstly the numerical probability of the life import has to be less than of the local origin. Such a probability to receive the life from some exoplanet is so negligible that it may be excluded from consideration in general. Secondly, the transmission of the life origin from other celestial body does not free from the question of its origin in principle; the question about the life origination cannot be closed. Science must answer about the life origin elsewhere in general, and what this process was. Evidently, the probability of the local Earth’s life origin must remain in consideration.
On the one hand, if the life age coincides with the planet age then it would be thought about the probability of the life origin in proper conditions to be near 100 percent. On the other hand, the intriguing fact exists: there would be in the Earth’s biological reaches two kinds of life. If one of them would be suspected as the local one, then the second would be imagined as “the imported one”.
Carl Woese (Fig. 1.14) divided the former domain Procaryota, which included primary unicellular beings without the nucleus on two different ones: Bacteria and Archaea. The scientific world accepted this overturn unconditionally.
The matter is that the difference of the biochemistry of bacteria and archaea organisms is so great that their origin from some common predecessor cannot be grounded. There are really two kinds of life!
Fig. 1.14. The American microbiologist and the physicist by education Carl Richard Woese (1928-2012) [62].
All other living organisms, both unicellular and multi-cellular (including the people), constitute the domain Eukaryota, that is, “with the nucleus”. So, all the life on the Earth was distinguished to be of three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucariota.
First two domains occupied all the Earth, as a minimum, 2 billion years. It is difficult to imagine the diversity of the bacterial life of that time. The Earth’s minerals became the food and the waste became to be new minerals. The plurality of unicellular beings was limited only owing to “the food” quantity, to their competition, and to external conditions.
There were no predators. (They appeared further in the third domain Eukaryota). The “horizontal genes transmission” existed, that is, acquired features giving not only from parents to the posterity, but also simply to good neighbors.
This idyll to be longer time, and you could not read these lines… Causes of such a long stability are unknown. But changes came after again unexplained time period.
Geological deposits give evidence of several important events. There are: the glacial era when the Earth was frozen from 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago; the appearance of the chlorophyll within unicellular beings (predecessors of plants), and of the oxygen in the atmosphere; the origin of the firstly unicellular and later multi-cellular eucaryota.
What was the causation of the sequence of these events, which lifted the life on the next important stage? Several hypotheses compete.
The point of view prevails that the atmospheric oxygen was the metabolic product of the life activity of cyanobacteria. They used the carbon-dioxide gas for their sustenance. They could in such a manner decrease this gas quantity and could destroy the greenhouse effect. The less probable cause of the cold would be oscillations of the young Sun activity.
The atmosphere oxygen, which was produced by cyanobacteria, turned out to be the poison for bacteria and archaea. They are anaerobic organisms. They existed comfortably two billion years in the atmosphere without the oxygen. The catastrophe came for them. They backed down into places where the oxygen was absent.
Such a place, aside from others, is the bowels of animals and of a man. Taking part in the human metabolism, bacteria are working in the small intestine, archaea – in the large one. There is 1-2 kilogram of them in the human body.
The poison for ones is the life source for others. The oxygen is necessary for eukaryota. Besides, bacteria and archaea left free ecological niches.
The typical size of eukaryota cells is 10-100 of million parts of millimeter. The size of bacteria and archaea is 0.5-10 of million parts of millimeter. Consequently, eukaryota cells volume is 1,000-10,000 times more than that of bacteria and archaea. Eukaryota cells have the nucleus. They have also much complex both structure and metabolism. The essentially more energy value is got owing to the oxygen.
It is evident that the oxygen would be the important condition for the eukaryota appearance. Therefore, they had to await their origin during 2 billion years of the bacteria and archaea kingdom. Why this period was not 1 or 3 billion years, we cannot discuss because partly of lack of knowledge about the relation between the occasion and the conformity with laws during this history.
Eukaryota began to eat bacteria, archaea and each other because predators among them had appeared. A man is also eukaryota and he is the predator too in the certain sense. Plants are also eukaryota but they became to be the food.
We see that the each step (link) on the life complication does not exclude the existence of preceding living beings. They become the base for novices arising and thus the pyramid grows. We arrange on its top, of course, ourselves.
Nobody knows why namely 1.5 billion years were again demanded for the next overturn coming. This was The Cambrian “Explosion” 540 million years ago. The great plurality of creatures of the water living world appeared simultaneously and quickly. This next in turn necessary step (link) in the life evolution is especially popular, although other previous ones are of the no less importance too.
The living beings could go later onto the dry land. The possibility had appeared owing to the oxygen percent growth in the atmosphere. It led to the ozone concentration to be enough to weaken the ultra-violet Sun radiation.
The ozone is the very toxic kind of the oxygen for all living but it prevents living beings in such a manner against the ultra-violet Sun radiation. This radiation, which helped to the life origin, is now destroying complex organisms. The life consists of paradoxes…
The evolution went rather smoothly, sometimes by leaps. The biggest was the Great Dying 252 million years ago. The volcanic activity is primary among possible causes to be considered. There is also the great meteorite crater under the Antarctic ice. Its age coincides with the Great Dying term.
The water and the air became dangerous for the life. 90 percent of species in the water and 70 percent on the dry land were died out. The summary duration of the Great Dying was about several thousands of years. The planet became to be almost free for the new creatures origin.
There were archosaunas among these novices. Archosaunas were predecessors of famous dinosaurs and birds. The first mammals, our direct predecessors, appeared a little later (Fig. 1.15).
Fig 1.15. Reconstruction of the Morganucodon considered to be the oldest known mammal (about 200 million years ago) [90].
However, mammals still occupied modest ecological niches. They had to await their kingdom coming about 180 million years… The supposed asteroid collision with the Earth changed the climate and dinosaurs died out.
This overturn is supposed to be about 66 million years ago. In view of the asteroid hypothesis, which is considered to be preferable, this event would be mainly occasional. But the mammal flowering was later owing to it; then primates appeared with a man among them. Might we exist without that asteroid?
We see that each new biological species origin depends on the occasion. It may take little time for only several generations and may be of the very local character. So, there would be no remainders of the notorious transitional species which is often sought by scientists. Inasmuch as the search is usually unsuccessful, therefore the new species origin seems to be a wonder.
On the other hand, the living may demonstrate the amazing stability. For example, the scorpion has almost no changes of own organism during tens of millions of years.
So the mystery of the evolution is still far from full comprehension. However, one may see 8 important events or indispensable “stair steps” (“links of chain”) of sequential favorable necessary circumstances which led to our origin: the bacterial life arise, the oxygen in the atmosphere, the eucariota appearance, the ozone protection, the Cambrian Explosion, the going out onto the dry land, the Great Dying, the asteroid collision. Together with those six ones from Section 1.1, there will be 14. But we still know not all!
Coming of each stage from 14 enumerated ones seems to be not inevitable or regular. Each sequential stage might be considered as accidental one because of unknown reasons. The long chain of accidental events would reduce our own chance to exist. If we live in spite of all that, then our existence has to be understood as the exclusively rare one on a galaxy scale.
Some similar chain of events, stages, might lead elsewhere to the origin of aliens. Therefore, they had to be very rare too. If so, what is the chance to communicate with them? We shall return to the question in Chapter 3.
And it is again not all. We still do not take into account the exclusivity of our planet Earth, its comfortable place near The Sun, its orbit circle form, the great advantages of the Sun itself, its good localization in The Galaxy, and so forth…
2.3. The Earth in the Sun Family
The life could exist and develop on the Earth owing to the relatively favorable and stable conditions during billions of years. Unfortunately, we see in one specimen not only the life but also the planet which is its home. We have again only one example to study the history which has led to the people intelligence.
The Earth origin and evolution is impossible to be understood separately from other planets and of the central heavenly luminary, the Sun. There is the splendid natural formation: the Solar System.
The Sun is the solitary star. It has 8 planets which are moving along almost circular orbits in almost one plane perpendicular to the Sun axis of rotation. There are also planet satellites, several smaller bodies, many comets, asteroids, meteor bodies, dust and gas.
The planets demonstrate two expressively different groups. The internal ones are relatively small but dense because of consisting mainly of stone and iron: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. It is also called “the Earth’s Group”.
The external planets are gigantic gaseous spheres mainly of the hydrogen and helium: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Two last ones are denser than two first mainly owing to the water or ice.
The mass of all planets together is less than the Sun in 740 times. In spite of this, planets possess 98 percent of the summary rotational angular momentum of the Solar System. The Sun has only 2 percent of this quantity that is less in 50 times. Here is the key to understand the planets origin and their base of existence.
The development of the view on the Solar System origin has the dramatic history. We shall here limit ourselves to the modern concept only. It is based on the observation of the similar process in other places.
The Solar System is the result of thickening of the “parental” cosmic cloud. “Cosmic cloud” is the scientific term. The word “cloud” must not be understood literally. The terrestrial cloud of the water steam is much dense in comparison with the cosmic one but it is negligible small in size at the same time.
Strictly speaking, it is not a cloud. Cosmic cloud has usually no clear bounds. It may extend in space over many light years. It consists of mainly hydrogen (70-72 percent) and helium (27-28 percent) – the main material of the Universe (after the hypothetical “dark matter”). It may contain 1-2 percent or less of the cosmic dust which is very important for this topic.
The word “dust” must not be again understood literally. Do not imagine the dust in a room before cleaning! The cosmic dust is very rarefied. It consists of atoms of the almost all Mendeleev’s Table and of molecules of their simple compounds both inorganic and organic ones. The last are very important for the life origin!
The cosmic cloud exists during billions of years in a stable state until some disturbing event. It may be, for example, the gravitational influence of stars or other cosmic clouds, the shock wave from the near explosion of the star “supernova” (the lately fashionable scenario), and even the direct collision of cosmic clouds (we shall return to this modern view in the Section 2.5).
The gravitational instability as a result of the disturbance tends to the appearance of points of thickening which become the centers of the gravitational attraction for the rest cloud material. They are future stars and planets.
It is considered that the Solar System took only 1/40 part of the initial material of the “parental” cosmic cloud. The rest more than 90 percent of this material continues to exist in the almost previous state.
However, the “parental” cosmic cloud always participated both as a whole and in its parts in the different rotational movements. The rotational angular momentum cannot disappear. The speed of rotation increases while thickening. The possessors of the angular momentum become mainly planets when the star is solitary. But there may be also several stars rotating around each other. It is the worse variant both for the origin of planets and for the life existence. Our Sun is the solitary star.
The planet orbits allocation submits to the Titius-Bode Law which is empirically established but it has no theoretical basis up today. Exoplanet orbits submit also to this law in the majority of cases.
The planets in the Solar System have shared their roles. Four great planets of the external group have accumulated 99.85 percent of the planet common rotational angular momentum. Four internal planets of “the Earth’s group” together possess only 0.15 percent of this quantity.
However, four internal planets have no competitors in the very important property. They consist mainly of stone, iron, water and other materials which were namely dust in the “parental” cosmic cloud.
The only hydrogen and helium are not enough as the material for the life but they constitute more than 98 percent of the initial one. We must pay attention mainly to the dust, which constitutes less than 1-2 percent of the cosmic cloud, and to the planets structure.
Fig. 1.16 illustrates the representation about the structure of great planets of the external group. The Earth is shown above. These planets are shown closely in the picture. However, the distances between them are tens of thousands more than the Earth’s diameter. The mankind occupies the negligible small part of the space.
Schematic central cross section is shown in the approximately same scale. It is seen that the central stone-metallic nucleus of these planets is commensurable in dimensions with the Earth which is stone-metallic too.
Fig. 1.16. Schematic cross section of great planets of the external group in the almost equal scale. The Earth is above for the comparison. 1 –the gaseous hydrogen and helium, 2 – the ice or water, 3 – the metallic hydrogen, 4 – the stone component with melted metals. Uranus and Neptune would have gigantic oceans of water and the thick hydrogen-helium atmosphere [53].
The thought inevitably arises that the planets of the Earth Group are “undressed nuclei” of some initial planets which were potentially similar to those on Fig. 1.16. Really, how did the hydrogen and helium disappear? These gases together constituted over 98 percent of the initial material. The internal planets consist of mainly the former dust and meteor material which was less than 1-2 percent from the initial one!
It is necessary for us to comprehend in what manner the initial substance was separated. The complex life would be impossible without it. When and how was it going on? There is no clearness in this important question. Unfortunately, the physical and mathematical theory of this initial substance separation for planets of the Earth group has not built in spite of the developed physical knowledge.
Therefore, the possibility of the same event in other places is difficult to estimate. Moreover, several exoplanets are known to be located nearer to their star than the Mercury to the Sun but they are gigantic gaseous bodies similarly to the Jupiter [70]. There was evidently no substance separation by their stars.
There are two points of view which have some explanation without the physical and mathematical foundation. The first one considers the Sun formation before planets. The young Sun caused “putting out” the light elements, hydrogen and helium, from the internal region owing to the pressure of light and to the “Solar Wind”, that is, the flow of the protons spread around.
The rest substance was thickened into planets, meteor and other bodies sequentially. Firstly more heavy iron fell and formed the planet nucleus. Afterwards the stone component formed the Earth’s mantle and upper the earth-crust. Such a model explains the layer structure of planets and it is named “poured” one. The Earth never was in the melted state. In such a case, as calculations show, it should be in the liquid state till today [41].
The water was in this model pressed out upwards all the time and the atmosphere was mainly of the carbon dioxide at once.
The second point of view is that the Sun and planets were formed simultaneously and the Sun was initially the great celestial body but not a star. Internal planets were coated with the huge hydrogen and helium covering. Removing these gases was caused by the young Sun. Such an “undressing” was because of the Sun radiation, especially of its ultra-violet part.
The shorter the wave length is, the more is the heating energy of the corresponding radiation. The heated molecules, atoms and ions of gases received the increased speed of motion. After reaching “the second cosmic speed” (11.2 km/sec for the Earth but initially more) they may overcome the planet gravitational attraction and went away into the space.
True, supporters of this opinion consider the Earth atmosphere to be initially of 5 percent of the common planet mass but not 98 percent [39]. They do not trouble themselves with thought how 90 percent of the initial mass disappeared.
This model also avoids the total melting of the planet in order to separate the material onto its nucleus and the planet mantle. Supporters of both points of view find the confirmation of their hypotheses in the geology. However, there is the layer of the melted iron named upper or external nucleus, on which the mantle is swimming (Fig. 1.17).
Fig 1.17. The layer structure of the Earth’s sphere [99].
The source of the energy of bowels of the Earth is considered firstly to be the summary stored kinetic energy of shocks of plural falling bodies during the initial period and, secondly, radioactive heating. The heat creates the slow convective motion of the mantle plastic substance resulting in the planet layer structure and in the slow motion of continents. The upper layer of the liquid external nucleus would take the iron away from the lower bound of the mantle all the time.
The planets originated owing to plural falling of all kinds of the bodies and dust. The approximate date of the end of “the bombardment” may be defined from the age of the Moon craters as above 4 billion years ago.
Collisions have not finished absolutely. The rare occasions are also in our days. Such an event as near the river Tunguska in 1908 is estimated to be once in several hundred years and as in Chelyabinsk 15th of February 2013 to be once in 60-70 years. It causes the social anxiety. “The asteroid patrol” exists with the close participation of the USA.
The enigmatic feature of the Earth is tempting to be seen from the old “bombardment” more than 4 billion years ago. The point is that the Earth is in essence the double planet. It is because of its natural satellite Moon having the relative mass equal to 1/81 of the Earth mass and the relative diameter more than 1/4 of the Earth (Fig. 1.18).
Fig. 1.18. The Moon size in comparison with the continent Europe [32].
The natural satellites of such a size are orbiting around great external planets of the Solar System (Fig. 1.19). The numerical relation above shows the evident disproportion. The Earth is not “in so high rank” to possess such a big natural satellite.
Fig. 1.19. The comparative sizes of the planet satellites in the Solar System showed in the almost equal scale with the noted diameter (the Earth with the Moon are in the left upper angle) [18].
The modern hypothesis is that the Moon appeared as the result of the collision of the celestial body of the planet size with the young Earth in the height of “the bombardment”. This hypothesis explains the inclination angle of the Earth axis of rotation which is the cause of the season alternation (it is considered to be not obligatory for life and evolution). It explains also the correspondence of the Moon minerals to the Earth’s mantle substance owing the tangential direction of the collision.
Both Earth and Moon initially rotated together. The duration of one circulation was about 6 hours. Both bodies were at first constantly directed on each other with the same side. The Moon remains in this position right up to the present time.
The Moon moved gradually away from the Earth because of the ebb and flow friction. This motion continues at the present time. It is defined owing to laser ray reflectors arranged on the Moon surface. Moon’s moving away is schematically shown on the Fig. 1.20. It is similar to the spiral.
Fig 1.20. The scheme of the Moon moving away from the Earth during 4.36 billion years [89].
Moving mentally backwards along this spiral, the moment of collision would be clarified as 4.36 billion years ago [88]. On the other hand, the age of the Moon rocks, which was defined by means of the analysis of their radioactivity (Section 2.1), showed the maximal age 4.45 billion years. Such a disagreement is about 2 percent and it is so small for these very different ways of the definition that one may speak about a good representation and about the almost coincidence.
“The bombardment” was evidently hard. All planets axes of rotation, excepting the heavy Jupiter, are substantially inclined. Almost everyone had a hard collision. At the same time, we have the paradox again. One may see the amazing order as almost circle orbits. What was the disorder and where are participants?
The external great planets of the Solar system could “catch” their numerous satellites by means of “the soft collision” because of their gaseous bodies. In that case, satellites orbiting might be both agree in direction with the central body rotation and opposite one, depending on the side where the collision has occurred. There are examples of both kinds.
We have paid so much attention to this topic because of the point of view that the Moon ebbs and flows helped water creatures to go on the dry land. There would be in that case some increasing of our exclusivity and decreasing the probability to the same situation for somebody in other places of Galaxy. It would be also one more stage (link).
Fortunately, the Sun ebbs and flows exist on the Earth too. They are smaller but they would produce the same. Similar ones must exist on the near planets of other stars. Besides, the opposite point of view is that ebbs and flows are not obligatory for the life to go on the dry land. In that case, to have a big natural satellite is not obligatory for the planet to help the life to go from the water.
There would be other important consequence of the collision. If the Earth sphere structure had been already correspondent to Fig. 1.17, then the tangential direction of the shock would change the rotational speed and axis inclination mainly of the mantle with crust owing to the liquid iron layer below. After that event, the slightly different speed of rotation of the mantle and nucleus would be one of main causes of the geomagnetic field generation.
Besides, the breach changed the initial spherical shape of the Earth; it would create the difference of the surface relief onto the ocean and dry land; it would provoke the crust motion for the restoration of the spherical form, that is, for continents movement; it would be the cause of the volcanism around the formed huge cavity and so on. All these circumstances heighten the exclusivity of our advantageous conditions and of our extreme rarity.
The concept was born later about the inhabited zone. The planet, which would be the home of life, needs to be located near its central luminary not too close in order to avoid the water evaporation but not too distantly to avoid the everlasting ice. The liquid water is only in need.
The internal bound of the inhabited zone of the Sun is 0.725-0.95 of the Earth orbit radius, according to different estimations. The external bound of this zone is 1.01-3 of the radius of the Earth orbit [108]. Evidently, the Earth location has advantage to be inside this zone which is not quite wide.
One may see in this section 2.3, as a minimum, four additional necessary conditions (stairs steps, chain links) on the way of life arising: the stone-water planet surface with the atmosphere, the circle orbit, the planet location in the inhabited zone, ebb and flow from the natural satellite (debated). The exclusiveness of our own place is heightened and these conditions constrict the probability to find the life and intelligence somewhere else.
Our central luminary, the Sun, seems for us to be also the best one. Our star is not too great, bright and powerful with the hard radiation, but at the same time it is not too small and dim with a weak radiation. It is comfortable for our existence but there are several other kinds of stars to be suitable too. More details about it are in the next Section 2.4.
Inasmuch as we want to seek extraterrestrial aliens, which did not originate and live in our Solar System, the acquaintance with other stars is inevitable. In passing, it is in need to clarify demands to a star to be acceptable for the life support.
Stars may be observed from essentially more distances than planets. The last ones are found already as thousands [70]. This number is forecasted to be soon increased in ten times. On the contrary, stars are observed as hundreds of billions only in the Milky Way Galaxy. We ought to understand, what part of them could have planets in general, what part might produce with planets the substance separation and after that what part of them would give in principle the possible base for life and intelligence.
2.4. “Stars Population”
Stars warm planets and illuminate the Universe. They enrich It with the necessary substance. Both the life and intelligence are possible owing to stars.
Astronomers talk about “the population” of stars. It is poetic. Stars have the individual appearance and life story as people. Every star possesses its own features which are different from others. There are no absolutely identical two stars. All they have both the origin of their life and the end (from human point of view). The number of stars in the Galaxy is billions as the number of people on the Earth.
Stars submit to the laws of their “organism” structure, functioning, and development as people. These laws are theoretically established quite a good. The mathematical and computer modeling is applied. The confirmation is made owing to the observation of similar stars everywhere at all possible stages of their evolution.
There is no another way. The duration of the human individual life and even of many generations is less in millions times than the duration of star invariable look between changes even when the “star lifetime is small” for them.
However, individual differences of stars, including parts of one percent of heavy element admixtures, may take a star away from the strict conformity to laws. Some average behavior is always meant.
A star birth is the result of the gravitational partial thickening of a cosmic cloud (previous Section 2.3). The cloud consists of gases (hydrogen and helium) and of 1-2 percent of the dust (after passing the initial stage of the galaxy history). The dimension of the “cloud”, its material, thickness, rotation character and the speed of rotation have the key importance.
When the speed of the cloud part is relatively small, then the center of thickening may attract the great amount of the initial material. The resulting object is then relatively great. The opposite case is the more speed of rotation, the less amount of the falling substance to the center and consequently the less size of an object to be born.
The usual distance of the cosmic cloud extension is tens or even hundreds of light-years. There are thousands and even millions stars to be born almost simultaneously.
Stars are formed as groups named “a multiple system” or “a conglomeration” connected owing to gravitational forces. They agreed on such a bound: when there are to 10 stars in a group, then it is a multiple system; when there are 11 or more stars, then it is a conglomeration. But a multiple system itself may usually be a part of a vaster conglomeration.
Fig. 1.21. The stars birth in the Orion Nebula. The photograph of the Hubble Telescope [76].
The close multiple system of stars is less favorable for planets than a solitary star because of laws of the celestial mechanics and of the possibility of an irregular radiation.
At the same time, stars in multiple systems constitute 30-70 percent of a total star amount in accordance with different estimations. Solitary stars with planets similar to our Sun constitute the minority.
All stars of a conglomeration have approximately the same age and a chemical composition. A conglomeration of stars may disperse in the course of time. Our Sun belongs to the dispersed conglomeration.
The kinetic energy of gas falling onto the thickening is converted into the heat energy. The last one together with the pressure growth leads to the temperature increase.
When the temperature reaches 15-20 million degrees then the thermonuclear reaction begins, that is, the gradual conversion of the hydrogen into the helium. The object becomes to be the natural thermonuclear reactor, that is, to be the star of full value.
To call it the “hydrogen star”, one has to remember that the object contains even from beginning about 30 percent of helium which was together with the hydrogen the initial Universe constructive material. However, the energy source of such a star is namely the hydrogen.
The further “life” and “destiny” of the star depends on its initial mass together with the small heavy elements admixtures. The more the star mass is, the faster the hydrogen “fuel” expenditure takes place. The star life is then shorter as a “hydrogen” one until the full transformation into the “helium” one. The transformation results differ very much. At the same time all features of stars are also different but in huge limits.
To introduce order in the star-inhabitants, several classifications are proposed. The Harvard Classification is a very popular one. It subdivides all stars into main 7 classes signed with letters O, B, A, F, G, K, M in the order of decreasing of their mass, size, surface temperature, brightness, etc. At the same time, the quantity of stars of every class and corresponding “life duration” increases from each “upper” class to following “lower” one.
These letters sequence is not alphabetical. There are therefore different amusing phrases in several languages to memorize it. One of English variants is “Oh, Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me”.
The listed classes are named “spectral” ones because of the direct observation and registration namely the star spectrum. The mass of the star, its size, the surface temperature, the absolute brightness are calculated with indirect methods on the base of the registered spectrum.
The class “O” represents “blue super giants”. Their mass may be tens (seldom even hundreds) times more than the Sun. The temperature of the surface is 30-60 thousand degrees. The brightness is hundreds of thousands or even millions times more than the Sun.
Being in the absolute minority, blue super giants at the same time surpass in the amount of light all other stars together. Here is the cause why spiral arms of galaxies have the blue color (next Section 2.5).
Every such a gigantic star is the candidate to become “a supernova”. At first, it becomes the “helium star” after “only” several millions of years because of working-out all its hydrogen.
The corpulence is not conductive to the longevity of stars as the same of people.
The second thermonuclear reaction is the helium conversion into the carbon at the minimum 100 million degrees of temperature in the star center. The star becomes to be “the red giant”.
The next source of energy is the conversion of the carbon into the oxygen, then the oxygen into the silicon. There are other thermonuclear reactions with other elements conversion.
All these stages are of less duration than the conversion of hydrogen into the helium. The every transmission to new reaction is accompanied with rebuilding of the whole sphere of the star.
The final reaction is the silicon conversion into the iron. All further reactions do not provide the energy. On the contrary, they demand the energy. Here is the end.
Each thermonuclear reaction gave the heat and the internal pressure which was balancing the gravitational pressure of the external layers of the star plasma. The disappearance of the internal energy source causes all the upper layers to fall down, making the colossal explosion. All elements of the Mendeleev’s Table, including heavier ones than the iron, are created in the relatively small amount.
“The supernova” competes with all own galaxy in brightness during several days. The neutron object remains at the place of the explosion. The luminous one is called “a pulsar”. The non-luminous one is called “the black hole”. The last occurs, when 2nd cosmic speed above its surface is more, than the speed of light. Features of these objects seem to be fantastic. But supposed details have no relation to our theme.
At the same time, the huge amount of the external material, which was thrown out, has the direct relation. This throwing out just enriches the Universe with all elements heavier than the hydrogen and the helium, that is, with all necessary for the life and consequently for the intelligence origin.
All minerals of planets, all material of our bodies have passed through the star bowels and, possibly, no once. We are built of the stars substance!
For example, three bright stars of “the Orion’s Belt”, which are closely located in the short straight line, belong to the class “O”. The left one is named “Al-Nitak (“the girdle” in Arabian). The distance to it is about 817 light-years. Al-Nitak is the multiple triple system. The largest member is meant here.
The right star of “the Orion’s Belt” named “Mintaka” (“the belt” in Arabian) is also the multiple system of 4 stars. Two of them belong to the classes “O” and “B”. Each of them has the mass 20 times more than the Sun and the brightness 70-90 thousand times more than the Sun.
The middle star of “the Orion’s belt” named “Al-Nilam” (“the thread of pearl” in Arabian) is also the blue super giant. It is supposed to become “the helium star” with the transformation into “the red super giant” and to explode as the supernova after one million years. (It is interesting whether somebody representative of the mankind would be still alive to verify and to confirm calculations).
“The short star life” of blue super giants does not allow them, on the one hand, to have time to go away from the place of birth. They illuminate parental cosmic clouds, near which they are located. It may be seen on fig. 1.21. On the other hand, the shock wave from the explosion makes the next thickening of the cosmic cloud and the further stars generation. The process repeats and it is endless.
Evidently, the evolution of gigantic stars is always connected with working-out the elements of the whole Mendeleev’s Table. Here is their highest cosmological role.
The class “B” represents “white-blue giants”. Their mass may be to tens of the Sun mass. The surface temperature is 10-30 thousand degrees. The brightness is to tens of thousands more than the Sun.
The example may be the star “Benetnash” which is the last one on “the handle of the scoop” in the Great Bear (Ursa Major) constellation. The surface temperature of this star is 22 thousand degrees. The distance to it is 101 light-years.
The class “B” has the important bound inside it. According to the theory, stars with the mass more than approximately 8 masses of the Sun have chance to become ”a supernova”. Stars with the mass less than approximately 8 Sun masses usually go through all the described evolution without the catastrophic explosion.
Stars of classes “O” and “B” are not comfortable for planets. It is advantageous for us to be at the solid distance from them now. The Great Die-Out 252 million years ago would have been stimulated by the near supernova explosion with the induced radioactivity from gamma-rays in conformity with one of hypotheses.
Stars of next classes from “A” to “M” may be found among the approximately 77 ones located around the Sun at the distance to 16 light-years. Why is such a bound so popular in the literature? It is transparent.
The two-way electromagnetic wave communication at the distance of 16 light-years demands 32 years for “the inquiry” and “the answer”. Such a time period corresponds to the human individual life duration. Such is the psychological reaction to the evident absence of a possible dialog with aliens in the limits of the Solar System.
Unfortunately, as we shall see here, this dream seems to be also unrealistic.
The nearest star of the class “A” is the Sirius. According to the Harvard Classification, such a star has to be white with the surface temperature about 7.5-10 thousand degrees. The brightness is tens of times more than the Sun (the Sirius in 22 times), the diameter is several times more than the Sun (the Sirius has it 1.7 times more), the mass also several times more (the Sirius mass is about 2 times more than the Sun).
The Sirius is the brightest star in the night heaven at the north hemisphere because of the relatively small distance of 8.6 light-years. It is the member of the multiple double system. The second component is the massive small star “white dwarf”. Planets in this system are not found.
The next spectral class is “F”. The surface temperature of a white-yellow star is about 6-7.5 thousand degrees, the brightness is several times more than the Sun, the diameter and mass are slightly more than the Sun.
There is one star of the class “F” within the radius 16 light-years around the Sun: the Procyon. The distance to it is 11.41 light years. Its brightness is 7.5 times more than the Sun, the mass and the radius are correspondingly 1.77 and 1.7 times more than the Sun.
The Procyon has spent its hydrogen, it is transforming now into the helium star and after 10-100 million years it will became the red giant. It is the component of the double system. The second component is “the white dwarf”. This system has no planets.
The class “G” describes yellow stars with the surface temperature of 5-6 thousand degrees and other characteristics to be similar to the Sun which belongs to this class too. Excluding the Sun, there are two more stars of this class within the radius of 16 light years.
One of them is the component “A” of the triple system Alpha-Centaur, which is the nearest one at the distance about 4.37 light-years.
The second, Tau-Whale (т-Ceti), is solitary with the mass and diameter correspondingly 0.783 and 0.79 of the Sun. Since the 20th century it was on the suspicion to have planets and 5 planets were later discovered in 2012 [101]. Two of them have the mass and location to be like the Earth.
Unfortunately, this star has too small admixtures of heavy elements. It seems to be not originated together with the Sun in the common conglomeration. The Sun has the high percentage of heavy admixtures.
Therefore, planets of Tau-Whale would be probably gaseous spheres such as the far planets of the Solar System. At the same time, this planet system contains the dust amount that is 10 times more than the Solar System has. The dust is the material to form a stone-iron planet with water similarly to the Earth.
“Listening” to electromagnetic wave signals from the Tau-Whale direction from the distance of 12 light-years did not still give any results. The observation instruments and methods are rapidly improved and for the time being, when these lines are written, the new information about this system may be received.
The spectral class “K” together with A, F, G would be of the hope to have planets to be suitable for life. “Orange” stars of the class “K” have the surface temperature about 3.5-5 thousand degrees. Their brightness is about one-half of the Sun, the mass and size is a little less than the Sun. There are 5 stars of the class “K” in the considered region.
The nearest is the component “B” in the triple system Alpha-Centaur at the distance of 4.37 light-years. Its mass and diameter correspondingly consists 0.89 and 0.87 of the Sun. It has one planet.
However, it is difficult to imagine the conditions on this planet surface because of the close double system of components “Alpha-Centaur A” of the class “G” and “Alpha-Centaur B” of the class “K” which has this planet.
The star Epsylon-Eridani of the class “K” in the constellation Eridan is at the distance 10.5 light-years from the Sun. Its mass and size is about 85 percent of the Sun and the brightness 28 percent. The hope was in 20th century that this star would have planets.
However, the clearness about planets is absent up nowadays in spite of indirect signs. At the same time, it turned out that the Epsylon-Eridani is the young star with the age about one-half of billion years. It is still unstable. Besides, its system has in thousand times more amount of the dust and the asteroid material than the Solar System. Probably, planets creation and “the bombardment” have not been finished. Therefore, the hope to expect there the developed life is very small.
It is amazing to see such a young star Epsylon-Eridani in the common conglomeration with the quite adult Sun. One of them would come from afar.
The next object of the class “K” is 61 of Swan (61 Cygni) at the distance of 11.36 light-years. It is the double system of two orange stars. Component A has the mass 0.70 of the Sun mass and the diameter 0.665 of the Sun. Component B has correspondingly 0.63 and 0.595.
Both components 61 of Swan are orbiting around their common center of mass with the period of 678 Earth years. Therefore, each component cannot essentially change the illumination of the planet located near the other component. However, planets in this system are still in question. The modern observation instruments are still not enough.
The last star of the class “K” in the considered region is Epsylon-Indian at the distance of 11.73 light-years. This orange star has the mass 0.75 of the Sun and the surface temperature of 4600 degrees. It has 3 satellites with mass more than the Jupiter. Planets, which are similar to the Earth, also are possible there because of the heavy elements percentage to be similar to the Sun.
The spectral class “M” is the last to be considered here. Stars, which belong to this class, have the surface temperature about 2-3.5 thousand degrees. Their brightness does not usually exceed 10 percent of the Sun brightness. The red color of these stars has not to be meant literally. It means some similar to the Sun near the horizon.
In order to have the liquid water on the surface, the planet of “the red star” must be so near that the orbital period of one turn would be about tens of Earth days.
The mass of “the red star” has to be 10-50 percent of the Sun. At the same time, their number exceeds all stars of other 6 classes together. There are 50 such stars among totally 77 nearest to the Sun, that is, about 2/3 at the distances up to 16 light-years.
It is difficult to see these dim stars at great distances but it does not mean that they are absent there. They are suspected to be in the absolute majority everywhere.
“Red stars” spend their hydrogen so slowly that their “life duration” may reach theoretically several tens of billion years. It is essentially more than the Universe age is in conformity with today views. Here is the cause why we see these stars only young but never to be old. At the same time, these stars are often flashing.
It is not clear whether stars of the class “M” can do the separation of the substance on their internal planets, that is, to remove the hydrogen and the helium (over 98 percent of the initial total mass), to make these planets to be stone-iron with the liquid water and thus to be suitable for life. Examples are known of great gaseous planet of a kind of Jupiter but located at the direct closeness to the star [70].
None the less, seven planets were recently discovered around the star of the class “M” TRAPPIST-1 in the constellation Aquarius at the distance of 40 light years. Their mass was calculated within bounds 0.41-1.34 of the Earth with the supposition to have the stone-water composition. Three planets are localized in the zone of inhabitance where their orbital period is equal to several Earth days. Such closeness to the central star especially with the essential ultra-violet radiation would make the removal of the hydrogen with helium.
So, only stars of classes “O” and “B” may be considered as unsuitable for the life on their planets. They constitute the absolute minority and they do other duty as it were told.
The theoretical bound for the gaseous sphere to become a star is calculated as 7.67 percent of the Sun mass. Objects with the less mass are mainly not luminous. They are invisible in most cases.
Inasmuch as the number of objects of each class has the tendency to increase while passing from “upper” to “lower” class, then it may be expected that the number of these invisible objects would be more than all luminous ones together. In other words, the law of the distribution has the almost hyperbolic form.
The less the size is, the more the quantity of corresponding objects is and the more the probability to meet one of them or to have the collision during a flight. This probability is ignored in all projects of lovers of high speed even commensurate with the speed of light. The safety problem ought to be taken into account. We shall return to this question in the Part Two.
So, only 4 of nearest stars (5 percent from 77) are solitary and with several planets. Excluding the Sun, 3 of them have questions. Obviously, comfortable conditions for the life may not be met often.
The selection of 77 nearest stars is not representative to assert that the planet like the Earth is among every other 77 stars. To consider, that similar stars with the planet like the Earth represent 1 percent in general, is not right.
The considered region is 3-4 thousand times less than the Galaxy diameter. The stars amount in this region is about 3 billion times less than their total amount in the Galaxy. If we want to know the truth then the mental going out of this small selected region is in need. Limited human possibilities of communication must not hinder to calculate and to estimate. To look at the situation from the cosmic point of view demands the brief acquaintance with all the Milky Way Galaxy.
2.5. The Acquaintance with the Galaxy
The luminous white stripe, which crosses the sky at the clear, cloudless and moonless night, was named in ancient times “the milk poured out”. The God Zeus laid his son Hercules to his sleeping wife. She awaked and saw that she was feeding the unknown baby. She pushed him away and spurred the milk to spill over the sky. Other nations have the analogous myth.
So the name was born “The Milky Way” or “The Galaxy” because “gala” means “the milk” in Greek language.
The comparison of stars with people was in the previous section. Now the opposite one must be made for people with stars.
Galileo saw through his telescope in 1609 the huge number of stars within the Milky Way. However, he did not yet realize what it was.
Emmanuel Kant in 1755 explained the Milky Way as the greatest agglomeration of stars. But the true discovery of the Galaxy was made by William Herschel (Fig 1.22).
Fig. 1.22. William Herschel. The portrait worked by L.F. Abbott in 1785 [79].
William Herschel or Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel (1738-1822) was “one of tend children of the poor Jew musician Isaac Herschel which had adopted Christianity for the marriage” [79].
William Herschel was initially the musician of the military orchestra. He was later an organist, the teacher of music in the Halifax, the organizer of public concerts, and the author of 24 symphonies. He was then carried away by the mathematics in the connection with the music theory.
From mathematics to the optics, from optics to the astronomy, and finally, having no means to buy the great telescope, he began in 1773 to produce them himself, later also for sale. Such the versatility, according to the opinion of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, is one of signs of the genius person.
William Herschel became famous for the planet Uranus discovery together with its satellites, for the discovery of satellites of the planet Saturn. He discovered also the infrared radiation! But his main discoveries turned out to be in the field of the star astronomy.
Herschel was the first who understood that stars, which were near each other, were not simply neighbors but they constituted the multiple system connected with gravitational forces.
He saw through his great telescopes (Fig.1.23) that the white milky stripe over the night heaven consisted of the huge amount of stars. It was impossible to count them, and he thought up “the scooping method”.
Fig. 1.23. The 40-feet Herschel’s telescope with the mirror diameter of 1.6 meter [79].
This method was enough for him to guess that this star stripe on the heaven represents the disk which is seen from within. We are together with our star Sun inside the gigantic star disk!
William Herschel discovered the Galaxy similarly as Nicholas Kopernic discovered the Solar System. The Galaxy discovery is so important for our theme because all the main reasoning further will be connected with it.
The work of William Herschel was continued by his son John. The main sponsor was the crowned astronomer-lover, King of the Great Britain, George the Third [79].
At the same time, the French astronomer Charles Messier published in 1781 the catalog titled “Nebulae and Star Agglomerations” which was made together with Pierre Mechain. These 103 objects are always on the same places. It helps to avoid the muddle while the search of comets, to which Messier and Mechain devoted 30 years of own life.
The approximate 1/3 of these foggy objects was recognized in the 20th century as other galaxies – with a small letter because of common noun meaning. The Messier Catalog keeps its importance till now [1]. The capital letter “M” is written before the number of the object. The work of Messier and Mechain had soon the powerful continuation.
The sister of William Herschel (Fig. 1.24), Caroline Lucretia Herschel (1750-1848), was invited by him initially as a singer for his concerts. She had later shared his scientific infatuations and she became his assistant. She published the Catalog of 2,500 nebulae observed by means of great telescopes which were built by them together.
Fig. 1.24. Caroline Lucretia Herschel [79].
It was later clear that about a thousand of nebulae in her catalog are other galaxies (next Section 2.6), including some needed for understanding the structure of “our own” Milky Way. Caroline Lucretia was near to the Universe discovery after her brother who discovered the Galaxy. However, history went by another way. The discovery of the Universe was happened almost over a century (Section 2.6).
Nevertheless, the scientific achievement of Caroline Lucretia Hershel obtained recognition. She received the title of the honorary member of the Royal Society of the Great Britain and she was awarded a gold medal.
For example, the galaxy NGC1300 (Fig. 1.25) is observed in the constellation Eridani at the distance of 70 million of light-years. This time period is one million times more than the average human individual life duration. The light, which we see from it now, left this galaxy when dinosaurs were masters of the Earth. The galaxy NGC1300 does not cede to our Milky Way in dimensions. It is typical enough among others that may help to understand the structure of our Galaxy.
Fig. 1.25. The internal luminous disc of the galaxy NGC1300. The photograph is made through the telescope “Hubble” [92].
Each galaxy is considered as the product of thickening of the hydrogen and the helium of the Universe by analogy with the stars origin (Section 2.4). Therefore, typical galaxy is always surrounded with the usually almost spherical “halo” of dim stars of “the 1st generation”.
The halo has no clear bound. It is transparent and rarified, that is, distances between stars are relatively great here. It is difficult to see the halo even around the nearest galaxies. All galaxies photographs show mainly the internal disk. It may be said that the halo of the NGC1300 extends beyond the frame of Fig. 1.25.
Objects of the halo form sometimes groups or so-called “spheroid agglomerations”. All objects of the halo are orbiting around the galaxy center along various orbits.
The halo thickens gradually in direction to the galaxy center and forms the spherical “bulge” around it (Fig. 1.25). The bulge may sometimes have the stretched form as on this figure. Galaxies with such a bridge or “bar” are called “crossed” ones.
The halo, the bulge and the bar are almost deprived of the gas and the dust. The stars origin has been finished here long ago. There are mainly stars of “the 1st generation” with the age 12-13 billion years which shows the galaxy age to be near the Universe age in general. All these stars are characterized as “the population two”.
The formation of these stars of “the population two” was in the young Universe with the almost absence of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. Chance for the life is very small here.
The quite another matter is the galaxy disk. There are in Fig. 1.25 spiral arms which are connected with bar at right angles. They have a blue color because of super giant stars presence. The substance in the disk is distributed with the very non-uniformity. Spiral arms have the substance hundreds times more than the space between them. The same may be said about the magnetic field.
Stars are arising in spiral arms uninterruptedly. They are called “the 2nd generation” and even further generations are present here. All of them are of different age and are characterized as “the population one”. Supernova explosions occur here. Therefore, the gas of spiral arms is enriched with the dust, containing all elements of the Mendeleev’s Table. The life has its base.
There is the galaxy nucleus inside the bulge. The concentration of stars, gas and dust here is increased. All objects of the nucleus are orbiting around the central super massive one named the black hole. Its mass is usually about 1 percent of the bulge mass [8].
The galaxies classification takes into account only their external look irrespectively of the evolution, of internal conditions, etc. It is not astonishing because of the weak knowledge about galaxies processes. In particular, it is unknown, why spiral arms are arranged at the right angle relatively to the bar; what defines the distance between this point (end of bar) and the galaxy center; and how all spiral construction preserves own form during billions of years of rotation.
Our Milky Way is seen by us from within. However, it is possible to build its schematic structure by analogy with other observed galaxies, using a computer processing (Fig. 1.26).
Fig. 1.26. Milky Way Galaxy view in the prone position is built schematically by means of computer owing to the observation from the point of the Sun in the center of polar coordinates [87].
The Milky Way contains 200-400 billion stars. About one half of this amount is considered to be located in the disk, the second half in the halo, bulge, bar and nucleus.
The Milky Way has the bar with the calculated length of 27 thousands of light-years. It is seen at the angle 44 degrees (fig. 1.26).
The diameter of the Galaxy disk is estimated to be 100-120 thousands of light-years. Its thickness is about one thousand of light-years. Laser disk of the external memory of a computer has similar proportions. The bulge thickness is three times more and its location corresponds to the laser disk hole. Such a model is a weak attempt to imagine the giant which cannot objectively fit in the mind. The Milky Way has the greatest mass among 50 nearest galaxies.
Such a friable spiral galaxy structure is rotating as a whole or as the wheel with spokes. Why it is going on is unknown for everybody although theories arise. The linear speed of every point is the angle speed of rotation multiplied by the distance to the center of rotation. However, the stars motion submits to Kepler Laws. Stars may therefore go into spiral arms and go outside of them in the course of time. The hypothesis existed that it caused the Earth geologic periods and eras sequence in the past.
The Sun is located between spiral arms. When will it enter into the spiral arm again? It is unknown, possibly, it will never happen. The Sun turned out to be in the corotational circle where the angle speed results the same one defined accordingly to Kepler Law. The Sun distance from the Galaxy center is 26 thousand light-years ± 5 percent.
Such an advantageous place between Galaxy spiral arms in the corotational circle increases the exclusivity of our location and correspondingly it would decrease the chance for others because of probability of worse conditions.
The linear orbital speed of the Sun around the Galaxy center is estimated as 220-256 km/sec. It is close to the milli-light speed (0.001 of the speed of light) 300 km/sec.
The Sun makes one full revolution around the Galaxy center during 250 millions of Earth years. This quantity is called “Galaxy Year”. The Sun age is 18 Galaxy Years. The young girl! The Universe age is about 55 Galaxy Years and the Galaxy itself is a few younger. The age is not too old!
The Earth’s one year is a too small unit to measure cosmic times. They result then in billions. If you measure the distance from Washington to Tokyo in millimeters then billions would be received too.
Fig. 1.27 represents the picture of the Galaxy in other projection or the side view. The small scientific group of the Harvard University claimed in 2010 that symmetrical dim clouds at both sides of Galaxy disk (Fig. 1.27) are radiating gamma and X-rays. They may be the result of the activity of the central black hole of the Milky Way 100 thousand years ago [45].
Fig. 1.27. Cosmic clouds at both sides of the Galaxy disk, which is shown to be placed edgewise to the picture plane [45].
The center of Galaxy is located in direction on the constellation Sagittarius. The center is not seen because of covering cosmic clouds but it is possible to see it in the infrared radiation. The study of the movement of the nearest stars allowed “to weigh” the central black hole. Its mass turned out to be 2.31 million times more than the Sun.
This quantity is quite modest because it is only about 1/100,000 of the Galaxy total mass. The cause may be that the Milky Way is so gigantic because of swallowing up other nearest galaxies. Such an event turns out to be quite a routine.
Fig. 1.28 illustrates swallowing up the galaxy-satellite by the galaxy M51. The first is already connected with the end of the spiral arm of the second one. The other example is on Fig. 1.29.
Fig. 1.28.The Galaxy M51 [57].
Fig. 1.29. Connecting galaxies [72].
Calculations show that collisions of stars have the very small probability to occur during galaxies connection. Galaxies can go through each other without only one star collision! With it all, the star collision is considered to be not a direct contact but also a deviation of one star trajectory of movement by another one because of the gravitational forces.
However, the quite another matter is cosmic cloud. These clouds are very extensive and their direct collision is inevitable. The process is accompanied with the formation of stars with planets. Consequently, the galaxies connection is the beneficial process!
The couple of nearest spiral galaxies with bar, named Great and Small Magellan’s Clouds, form the double system connected with gravitational forces. They are at the same time satellites of the Milky Way and next candidates to be annexed.
The Milky Way Galaxy is now undergone “inventory making”. The cosmic telescope Gaia of the European Cosmic Agency (ECA) was launched in 19 December 2013. Its purpose was to build the 3-dimensional computerized map of our Galaxy.
The total amount of stars, which have to be registered by Gaia, would reach about 1 billion. The selection is by far more than 77 ones in previous Section! However, this amount is only about 0.5 percent of stars in the disk or 0.25 percent of all Milky Way. But it is only the beginning. It may happen in the 21st century that we shall know about the Galaxy more than during all the past. The telescope Gaia also has to discover about ten thousand exoplanets.
Although we know not all about the Galaxy, especially about its acting and movement, certain success is gained in comparison with the knowledge about the Universe. But the Galaxy is the part of the Universe and it is of almost the same age!
2.6. Hypotheses about the Universe
The conception about the Universe was reconsidered several times during 20th century. The Universe was imagined initially from time of Newton to be endless in space without geometric bounds and eternal in time without origin and end. The Universe was imagined to be stationary.
Such a representation gave the psychological comfort. The only one thing was endless and everlasting. There was no need to think what was before and what will be after.
It corresponded also to the Newton’s Law of Gravity. If the space was limited then all existing would tighten together. Such a process is really local when galaxies and stars with planets originate.
The development of the science about the Universe always depended on the means of observation or on the telescopes building. Great telescopes allow to distinguish separate stars in other galaxies (Fig. 1.25).
This was made by Edwin Hubble (Fig. 1.30). He used the Hooker’s mirror telescope with a 2.54 meter (100 inches) diameter. He distinguished in other galaxies the separate stars of the well-known types, especially with the pulsating brightness, with the known characteristics.
Fig. 1.30. An outstanding sportsmen, coach, philologist, lawyer, and astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953).
Measuring the intensity of these stars radiation allows to calculate the distance to them. It is approximately equal to the distance to the galaxy where the star is located. These distances turned out to be so great that it became clear that notorious nebulae are not located inside our Galaxy but they are outside and very far.
E.P. Hubble moved the bounds of the World apart to dimensions which are impossible to imagine. He discovered the Universe similarly as Copernic did the Solar System and Herschel did the Galaxy.
He proposed also the classification of galaxies on the base of their exterior. It is not astonishing because of the insufficient knowledge about processes in galaxies.
E.P. Hubble discovered not only the Universe itself but he also established its main feature, the Hubble Law.
The movement of galaxies may be in various directions. However, when the distance is great enough, the relative speed of every galaxy has the component, which corresponds to the mutual slow divergence from each other. It may be calculated, using the Hubble’s Parameter: about 22 km/sec on every million of light-years of a distance.
If the Universe broadens out then it has to be non-stationary one. It had probably its origin and it would possibly have the end. The Universe went modestly into the common range together with all other things.
A note is in need that the non-stationary Universe is only the theoretical meaning. Our civilization lifetime period, the duration of the existence of the mankind and even of the biological species “Homo” are too short to see any essential changes in the Universe. The paradox is that the non-stationary Universe is stationary from our position in time.
The more serious paradox may be broadening itself. Every point of space or its region must broaden when the neighboring points or regions are broadening too. Usual broadening means, for example, that a gas under a high pressure broadens in surrounding medium with a low pressure.
The stripes of an observed spectrum are displaced to the side of the red ones. The wave length increase is treated as relative moving away. The Doppler’s Principle is used to estimate a distance to far galaxies. The distance is calculated approximately owing to the red displacement. The more the red displacement of its spectrum is measured the farther the observed galaxy is located.
However, the Doppler’s Principle may be not only explanation of the red displacement. The other cause may be the energy loss by photons. These quanta of light may undergo gravitational force during their long-time travels through the Universe that we will further return to. They penetrate through huge fields of the rarified hydrogen. Besides, the Universe space consists mainly of vacuum. The last one is considered to be the quantum medium with properties which are difficult to be researched with laboratory methods.
Everybody accepted the concept of the Universe space broadening without contradictions owing to Hubble’s great authority. It was seemed on the wave of the Hubble’s gigantic scientific achievement that we would know everything about the Universe soon.
The finiteness of the speed of light is the cause of the astonishing feature of the Universe. We see all far objects in their past! As the Universe is non-stationary one, its cosmological history would be studied in such a manner. It is the amazing “time machine” (the combination of words was thought up by Herbert George Wells).
Unfortunately, this machine is not controlled. We can see each object only in its history moment which is defined by the necessary time duration for the light to overcome the distance to us. So, inasmuch as the Universe is uniform, the very far galaxies may be considered to belong to the Young Universe!
The galaxies among the nearest ones, which are comparable with our gigantic Milky Way in dimensions, are M31 in the Andromeda Constellation and M33 in the Triangle Constellation. The distances to them are correspondingly 2.52 and 2.64 million of light-years.
We can see today how these galaxies looked more than two million years ago. Their today state would be seen by our very far descendants if they would exist. It is evident that the communication with somebody on such a distance is deprived of a sense. The plurality of the intelligence in the Universe is only theoretical meaning.
The concept of the Universe broadening had a continuation: “the Big Bang”. The idea, which corresponded to the religious view about The Creation of the World, was supposed by the Belgian Catholic priest, astronomer and mathematician Georges Lemaitre (1894-1966). He published it in 1927 after his acquaintance with the works of E.P. Hubble and Vesto Slipher.
The idea was independently suggested by Russian physicist Alexander Fridman. The last one published his article in 1922 where the broadening Universe was foretold by him on the base of the Theory of Relativity by Albert Einstein.
The Big Bang ought not to be imagined as similar to usual explosion. To depict it as the fire flash on the black background is naivety. The substance initially filled in all the space everywhere with the uniform distribution. In other words, the situation with broadening while the Big Bang is supposed to be the same as today’s one, what was told above.
What was before the Big Bang? The science answers this difficult question very simply. The concepts of time and space before Big Bang are deprived of a sense. Ladies and gentlemen! Do not bustle. There was nothing. The Universe appeared suddenly after that.
“God said: “Let the light be!” And then the light appeared”. And what the light!
The Big Bang Theory was rapidly developed in the 20th century. The theory had explained the relation of amount of the hydrogen and the helium in the Universe as about 2.7/1.
The next component and one more confirmation of the Big Bang was the relic radiation. The term was suggested by J.S. Shklovsky. This radiation was foretold in 1948 by George Gamov ( 1904-1968) with his aspirants.
Fig. 1.31. George Gamov [13].
George Gamov (Fig. 1.31) left the city of Odessa at the age of 19 to continue his education in the Petersburg University. He became subsequently the versatile scientist and the author of several discoveries. The equivalent temperature of the relict radiation was calculated (1948) in the limits of 1-10 Kelvin degrees. It was confirmed 16 years later that this temperature is 2.725 Kelvin degrees. G. Gamov accepted congratulations of scientists of the world being happy as at a birthday.
The confirmation of his amazing forecast was as follows. The artificial satellite “Echo” was orbited in the USA at the beginning of 1960-s. It was a 30 m sphere of the reflecting thin film which was inflated with the small amount of the gas after launching onto the orbit. It has the look as a spectacular big star which was moving across the night sky.
“The Echo” was intended for the communication by means of radio-waves reflection. Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson experimented in 1964 with the 20-feet microwave antenna for this purpose (Fig. 1.32).
Fig. 1.32. Robert Wilson (to the right) and Arno Penzias (to the left) are near the microwave antenna served to the discovery of the relic radiation of the Universe [95].
They found the micro-wave radiation from all directions. It was rightly interpreted as the relic one which belongs to the Young Universe. Its hydrogen and helium had then the temperature near 3,000 Kelvin degrees that corresponds to the pink color. The dense young hot “pink” Universe was not transparent for electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, including the visible light.
According to the Big Bang Theory, the Universe cooled little by little after this event and it became transparent for electromagnetic waves, including the visible light, at the age of 380 thousands of Earth years (very soon on the cosmological scale).
It is considered that this freed radiation is observed today as the relic one. The displacement of its maximum from red to microwave is explained on the base of the Doppler’s Principle in the broadening Universe.
The corresponding cooling from 3,000 to contemporary 2.725 Kelvin degrees, that is, within the limits of 1-10 Kelvin degrees calculated earlier by G. Gamov with aspirants, may mean that we live now in the old Universe or, at least, in quite adult one.
The Universe is homogenous and uniform. Its broadening is considered to be everywhere. Fig. 1.33 may help to clarify the concept schematically. We are located inside our Galaxy in the point A. The relic radiation is coming to us from all directions which are selectively shown as unbroken lines a1 with arrows. Their source is the surface of the final diffusion. This spherical surface cutting by the picture plane results in the unbroken circle a2.
Fig. 1.33. The observers in points A and B of the Universe may regard the relic radiation from all directions. Author’s drawing is explained in the text.
The surface of the final diffusion is not “a wall”. It is the bound of the Young Universe which consisted of the hot hydrogen-helium plasma. This bound corresponds to the moment when the Universe became to be transparent for radiation. And we see it owing to this relic radiation at the distance approximately of a3 = 13.4 billion light years in accordance with the contemporary outlook.
Fluctuations of the intensity of the relic radiation are negligibly small (less than 0.1 percent) that confirm the high uniformity of the Young Universe. The average density decreases along each line to the modern value around the point A.
Let us imagine an alien observer in point B inside a very far galaxy which is seen today to be very young. (The topic will be continued at the end of this Section 2.6). What would be dealing with the relic radiation there today? It would be absolutely the same.
The selected directions of the relic radiation are shown with dotted lines b1 with arrows. The dotted circle b2 corresponds to the final diffusion surface cut by the picture plane. The distance to this surface is approximately b3 = 13.4 billion light years. The observer in B may see our Galaxy to be very young that it was for us approximately 13 billion years ago and he may write it with the small letter but his own one with the capital letter.
It is evident that there may be points C, D and so on. The situation would be analogous because the Universe is uniform.
To penetrate by sight farther than the surface of the final diffusion and then to Big Bang moment itself may be tempting but it is impossible. First of all, the hot hydrogen-helium plasma is not transparent for electromagnetic oscillations (or for photons).
The neutrino astronomy is debated. However, it is still problematic. Besides, the surface of the final diffusion is moving away relatively to us with the speed which is almost equal to the speed of light. Neutrinos also cannot surpass the speed of light.
The impossible for observations is possible for a thought. Supposing the maximal speed of broadening after the Big Bang to be equal to the speed of light (it cannot be more) and dividing it onto the Hubble’s Parameter, one may approximately receive the Universe Age value.
According to the NASA data, which are obtained by means of the space vehicle WMAP9, the Universe age is 13.830 ±0.075 (±0.54 percent) billion years. In accordance with the European Cosmic Agency (ECA) and its data from the space telescope “Planck”, the Universe age is 13.798 ±0.037 (±0.27 percent) billion years.
Please, just imagine the situation. Negligible small creatures are bustling on the surface of the tiny speck of dust. They are not even bacteria in the scale of the Galaxy, not to mention about the Universe. They declare that they know Its age with such an accuracy!
What a self-confidence and lack of modesty! It would be some nuisance. And it occurred. We pass to this question just now.
The cause of Universe broadening was in the main interest first of all. The Big Bang was initially considered to be the only cause. It was thought that the speed of broadening must be decelerated in the course of time (although there was no usual explosion). Hubble’s Parameter has to be decreased in the course of time.
However, the speed of broadening was found to be not decreasing. Moreover, it is not only considered to be variable, but also it turned out even to be increasing. The view prevails today that the Universe broadens with the speed acceleration. Moreover, this acceleration value varied in the past and even broadening was temporary stopped! [48]. The calculated value of the Universe age mentioned above has to be revised.
It turns out that the Big Bang was not sufficient for the Universe contemporary state. The anti-gravity was suspected firstly to explain the acceleration of the speed of broadening. The anti-gravity action was supposed instead of the gravity on very large distances. True, to find the anti-gravity was of no success in all excellent and complex experiments.
It was also told about the substance broadening because of space broadening without some proof. The newest invention is “the dark energy” to explain the accelerated broadening. What is this energy and what source does it appear from?
The history of science knows cases when some conditional auxiliary concept was later refused. There was the concept of “the flogiston” or “the heat-maker” in 18th century. It had to compensate the temporary lack of right knowledge of chemical laws. Several similar ideas existed while Middle Ages to close lacunas in knowledge.
The Great Newton had left for us the paradox too. On the one hand the mechanical acceleration demands the force, according with the Second Law of mechanics. This force can be received from a body with its own mass (the Third Law of mechanics). On the other hand, the gravitational force is transmitted according to the Newton Law of Gravity through the cosmic space, which has no own mass or it is “empty”.
All modern theories and hypotheses were built on one another without resolving this paradox. But “the dark matter” and “the dark energy” take an especial place.
“The dark matter” is absent in the Mendeleev’s Table of elements. If it was there then it would not be “dark” one. Supposed particles of “the dark matter” will be searched by means of gigantic atomic accelerators and colliders. Great costs will be demanded.
The dark matter has to be everywhere. Its presence within all the existing from atoms to whole Universe demands to revise all the science. The quantum physics has to be revised too, including the Big Bang Theory itself. The classic physics also will not be outside.
However, the dark matter is not still found in the terrestrial conditions. Moreover, it is not found also at distances to 13 thousand light-years [104]. The Great Confucius said that it is very difficult to seek a black cat in a dark room especially when it is absent there.
The vacuum, which fills all cosmic space, is quantum medium with properties which are studied not enough. At the same time, it is unknown, whether laws, which are established in narrow terrestrial conditions, may be true on huge cosmic distances.
And finally, how much does the Universe follow to our equations and mathematical modeling? Are the resources of the human mind enough to hold It?
“It is the same that to attempt to feel radio-waves by means of the sense of smell… It is in need to accept that the Universe work and the nature of its formation may be so complex that would be simply outside of frames of our brain” [73].
The Universe history seems to be the most complex problem in comparison with the internal planets deprivation from hydrogen and helium, with the proof of the Titius-Bode Law, with the theory of the Galaxy stable structure, and so on, which are without the solution up today. Every schoolboy may say that the relatively simple problem has to be solved before, but the attempt to solve more complex one has to be undertaken after.
The discussion about the Universe work and formation is emotional. But it is important for the world outlook only. It has no influence on our life. Besides, the duration of the existence of our civilization is too short on the cosmological scale for noticing any changes in the Universe as it was said.
At the same time, the question of the Universe age is of the high priority for our theme. It defines the probability for extraterrestrial aliens to originate in the past. The calculated Universe age value must be increased because of following arguments.
1. The modern value of the speed of Universe broadening or Hubble’s Parameter (approximately 22 km/sec per 1 million of light-year of distance) would be maximal relatively to all past time if there is the broadening acceleration. This value is the denominator of the fraction when the speed of light (the numerator) is divided to calculate the Universe age. The true age value has to be more than the received decreased value of the age.
2. Three scientists from the Paris University published in 1980 the meteorite analysis result giving the Universe age value from 13 to 22 billion years [26]. One half of the amount of the radioactive element rhenium disintegrates onto the element osmium during 60 billion years (it is more than the Universe age value correspondingly to all estimations).
The meteorite age was supposed to correspond to the early Universe (and our Galaxy). However, even for such an optimistic opinion, the Universe age about 14 billion years turns out to be near the minimum of the calculated interval. Please, note that the age definition by means of the analysis of the radioactive disintegration (Section 2.1) seems to be more solid than on the base of the cosmological hypothesis [48] that has no yet clearness.
3. There are cosmic objects whose grounded age surpasses the modern calculated Universe age. The example may be “The Mathusalem Star” with the calculated age about 16 billion years [93] which is 2 billion years more than the modern Universe age estimation.
4. The very young far galaxies are discovered lately. It is indirect evidence of the long time duration for their formation and development. The topic is so important for our theme that it demands the consideration in more details below.
Being not satisfied with possibilities of modern telescopes, astronomers use gravitational lenses. The gravitational field of large galaxies agglomerations bends the photon directions similarly to lenses. Images of very far objects are registered in radio-waves of the millimeter range because of the great red displacement of these objects. Their speed of moving away is a little less than the speed of light.
Using this method, the galaxies were registered at distances 10, 12 and even 13.035 billion light-years [110]. The record was established by Marcus Postmen with scientific group of the American Institute of the Space Telescope: 13.3 billion light-years to the discovered galaxy [109]. It is only 0.5 billion years younger than the Big Bang itself and it is only 120 million years younger than the relic radiation!
According to the Big Bang Theory, these very young galaxies must be poor of heavy chemical elements. On the contrary, their real spectrum shows no lack of these elements and demonstrates their quite mature composition. Was only 120 million years enough to have all heavy elements after the homogenous hot pink plasma Universe?!
The explanation was that first blue super giant stars (Section 2.4) might have time to enrich gaseous cosmic clouds with heavy elements (dust) owing to their relatively short duration of life (about several millions of years). However, if the Universe age is essentially more than its modern estimation then these discovered galaxies might have enough time to become adult ones. Their composition may be the additional confirmation that the real Universe age is more than its contemporary estimation.
It is the most important for our theme that young galaxies with “the age 0.5 billion years” were already enriched with all elements of Mendeleev’s Table to create life and after that also the biological intelligence. Inasmuch as the Universe is homogenous and uniform, galaxies, which constitute the Milky Way, would also have in the same manner all necessary material to create life and then intelligence too.
Consequently, if the Milky Way age is supposed to be about 13 billion years old and 0.5 + 4.5 billion years by analogy with the Earth were in need for the first technological civilization arising, then there would be about 13 – 5 = 8 billion years to our days for the life and notorious aliens repeated arising.
The time 8 billion years is about one million times more than the supposed average technological civilization lifetime duration 10,000 years (Section 1.1). The probability of aliens origination during 8 billion years would be more in the same million times than to exist in our time simultaneously with us.
However, the science is anxious about the estimation of the probability of existence of aliens namely in our days but not in the past. Calculations will be reviewed in the next Chapter 3. Besides, some signs of the probable former aliens existence in the past will be the subject of our attention in more degree afterwards.
Chapter 3. Extraterrestrial Aliens Search
3.1. The Probability Calculation
It was noted in Section 1.6 why the attempt to find aliens must be carried out from our Solar System onto the Galaxy space. On the one hand the science does not deny the possibility of aliens to exist in principle that is quite logical. On the other hand, there is no confirmation of their existence simultaneously with us.
At the same time, the modern knowledge about the Nature and about the surrounding World is accumulated that was shortly reviewed in previous Chapter 2. Having nothing, it is quite not a bad variant: to try to know about the possible alien presence by the way of calculating the probability of their existence somewhere on the base of our knowledge and of the own historical experience.
One can say that our experience is too narrow for establishing some solid generalized assertion. However, the Universe is uniform, the organic substance is present everywhere, laws of nature are the same, etc. In general, we have no other way because there is only one example of civilization (ourselves) in spite of the paradox again. We are unique and extremely rare in the Universe and in the Galaxy on the one hand but on the other hand we would be quite typical event at the same time.
The Drake Equation was initially proposed in 1961. It is most popular among other similar ones. Frank Drake (Fig. 1.34) is the professor of astronomy and astrophysics in the California University. He bears the same surname and almost the same name as the famous sailor and pirate of 16th century. However, that pirate could not reach such the energy, bravery and heroic deeds.
Fig. 1.34. Professor Frank Donald Drake [106].
The Drake Equation is:
where:
N = the number of civilizations in our Galaxy with which communication might be possible (i.e. which are on our current past light cone);
and
R* = the average rate of star formation in our Galaxy during one Earth`s year
fp = the fraction of those stars that have planets
ne = the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets
fl = the fraction of planets that could support life that actually develop life at some point
fi = the fraction of planets with life that actually go on to develop intelligent life (civilizations)
fc = the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space
L = the length of time for which such civilizations release detectable signals into space [67].
Two quantities in the Drake Equation have the dimensional representation: R* has “year” in the denominator and L has “year” as its dimensional representation. Both “years” are reduced while multiplying. The rest members are without the dimensional representation and the result is of the same kind.
The purpose of the Drake Equation is to express one unknown and conjectural quantity N in the form of product of seven other quantities which may be estimated and discussed separately. At the same time, the illusion appears of obtaining some firm calculated result.
However, the first three quantities in the right part of the equation may be only expressed as relatively definite ones. Three last ones are again conjectural. Their indeterminacy brings the accuracy of previous ones to nought. Nevertheless, the Drake Equation is mathematically quite correct and it may be the basis for generalized estimations and conclusions.
Each quantity of 7 ones in the right side of the Drake Equation was discussed on the Conference in Burakan in 1971 [50]. The most famous authorities and enthusiasts (Fig. 1.35) of the CETI problem (CETI – Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence) participated in this Soviet-American Conference.
Fig. 1.35. The Participants of the Burakan Conference in 1971. Its chairman academician V.A. Ambartsumyan stands in the center with the folder in hands [50].
There were from the side of the USSR: V.A. Ambartsumyan, L.M. Guindilis, N.S. Kardashev, V.S. Troitsky, J.S. Shklovsky (32 persons in all); from the side of the USA: F. Drake, F. Morrison, C. Sagan, R. Lee (18 persons in all). The Great Britain, the Hungary and the Checho-Slovakia had one participant each. The participant R. Peshek from the Checho-Slovakia was the initiator of this Conference organizing.
Half of century passed but the Burakan Conference remains to be the unique point for the frank discussion. The relic radiation was discovered in 1964 and radio-galaxies were discovered 20 years earlier. The radio-astronomy was rapidly progressing. The quasars were discovered in 1963. Pulsars were discovered in 1967. They turned out to be the neutron stars which were foretold not long before. The X-ray stars were discovered in 1971.
It seemed on the wave of these plural achievements that the communication with aliens might be quite real. Estimations and forecasts of the Burakan Conference had to ground the expediency to finance the scientific program.
Unfortunately, the Burakan Conference did not fulfill the task. The extreme difficulty was definition of L – the technological civilization lifetime. The nuclear confrontation was the negative example which hindered to propose some reasonable value.
The amount of stored explosives is equal to the sphere of dynamite with the diameter 2 meters for every inhabitant of the planet Earth from great-grandmothers to great-grandsons (Von Hoerner) [50].
If civilizations kill themselves (global nuclear war) then their lifetime duration L would be small, N = 1 (our own presence was only calculated), but “nobody would be present in Galaxy to converse with us, excluding ourselves” (C. Sagan) [50].
We shall see soon how much these words were clairvoyant, even renouncing global nuclear wars. Strictly speaking, the L definition relates to the sphere of the futurology but more about this direction of thought is in the Part Three, Chapter 9.
The modern estimations of the technological communicable civilization duration L are from 300 to one billion years [67]. The minimal amount of communicable civilizations is then supposed to be N = 4×10–12, that is, we have to be alone in all observed part of the Universe.
The maximal amount N = 36.4 million. Civilizations of living aliens may be teeming in the Galaxy. It is evident that such wide limits of the result are equivalent to lack of it. Some grounds are in need for reasonable number.
Let us return to the note in the end of Section 1.1 about the tendency of duration reducing of each subsequent stage of development. In order to avoid the exception from this tendency (futurology!), there would be approximately L = 5,000 years. It is less than the duration of a state presence and written language period of 7,000 years. Don’t upset yourself if this value seems to be too short.
Firstly, the end of the period L of the ability for communication does not mean the end of humanity but it may mean only the interest loss or the lack of energy to communicate, etc. We need a definite number for the reasonable calculation result.
Secondly, our artificial intelligence, being created soon, has to be the long-time prolongation of the civilization. However, we speak now about the biological intelligent communicable civilization.
F. Drake with his colleagues supposed initially R* = 10/year (10 stars appear in the Galaxy during 1 Earth year), fP = 0.5, ne = 2, fl = 1, fi = 0.01, fc = 0.01, L = 50,000 years. Then N = 50 contemporary communicable civilizations in the Galaxy (including our own one). This optimistic result has the consequence that the average probable distance between them would be about one thousand light-years.
The modern estimation uses R* = 7/year (according to NASA opinion), fp = 0.5, ne = 0.005, fl = 0.13, fi = 0.01, fc = 0.01, L = 10,000 years. Then N = 0.002275 or 1/440 [105]. Later this number was revised and N = 0.00637 was published. It is more optimistic one but of the same order that does not change the paradoxical situation which needs to be discussed.
The point is that our civilization really exists and N = 1 in fact. What meaning has the fractional number N = 0.002275-0.00637? It is evident firstly that “our” gigantic Milky Way Galaxy turned out to be not statistically representative enough to have only one technological and communicable civilization in our time. Secondly, it is necessary for this purpose to include for the statistics several hundreds of neighboring galaxies in order to have the result N = 1.
In other words, our intelligent technological civilization may be considered to be the only one among several hundreds of nearest galaxies, including “our” Milky Way. Where are aliens simultaneous with us? Probably, they may be located within one of next several hundreds of galaxies…
Both the communication with aliens and their visit on the Earth seem to be quite hopeless matter. But the theoretic result is received on the basis of optimistic suppositions!
It must be noted that the tendency to reduce the probability of other intelligent civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy was in the essential degree also originated by the outstanding biologist Ernst Mayr [67]. It was told about him in Section 1.4.
So, J.S. Shklovsky was almost right when he considered in the last years of his life that we are alone in the whole Universe in general. This extreme point of view does not pretend to be right. True, inasmuch as aliens theoretical presence somewhere at the distance tens of millions of light-years excludes the possibility of communication, it is equivalent to their absence for us.
One may see that multipliers fi and fc remained to be the same 0.01 during half of the century after proposing them by F. Drake. It is not astonishing because nobody knows other and grounded value and because of the Drake’s authority, although critics noted the excessive optimism of numbers 0.01. At the same time, the multiplier ne became to be thin more than in 400 times after the appearance of the concept about the inhabited zone (Section 2.3).
In general, the tendency is seen to add new fractional multipliers in the Drake Equation, producing the N decrease. Thousands of exoplanets are discovered and it is turned out that their circle orbit is rare [70]. But it is very important for the stable conditions for the complex life! Is the additional fractional multiplier needed?
Planets of the Earth dimension are found too. However, it is not clear whether they are stone-iron with water or they are gaseous spheres of hydrogen and helium that is sometimes confirmed. The question of the initial substance separation is without answer as before (Section 2.4) and one more corresponding fractional multiplier expects its including into the Drake Equation.
It seems that the tendency of decreasing of the probability of aliens to co-exist with us will continue because new necessary conditions may be discovered. The chance to find aliens would be reduced. But we want to receive confirmation of their existence in principle. What is the matter with their presence in the past?
There was in the end of Section 2.6 the grounded duration value of the period of the possibility of the intelligent communicative civilizations to arise in the Milky Way Galaxy: about 8 billion Earth years.
Moreover, the NASA value of the stars generation per year R* = 7 gives after multiplying by the Galaxy age (12.6 billion years) the total stars amount only 88 billion instead of contemporary 200-400 billion which is 3-5 times more.
Obviously, the tempo of the stars generation in the past was in the Milky Way together with joined galaxies 3-5 times more than contemporary one. Consequently, the calculated probability growth would be also 3-5 times more than 1 million, that is, 3-5 million times.
Besides, it was told in Section 1.5 about the essential probability of the creation of the artificial intelligence by biological one. If the cybernetic electronic intelligence can exist much longer than its biological creators, for example, let L = 100,000,000 years, then N would be equal to 22 cybernetic civilizations during the last 100 million years.
The communication problem for aliens, which lived in the past, would be evidently the same as for us today. The space and time barriers were also huge but the lifetime of each biological civilization was too small on the background of cosmological times. “Cosmological point of view” allows to tell about rare and short sparks of the biological intelligence sometimes in several points of the Galaxy disk. However, it would not right for cybernetic descendants who are supposed to be lasting and mobile.
Finally, to receive some confirmation of the alien existence in the past seems also worthy of note. On the other hand, our young, rare and possibly the only one contemporary civilization in the old Milky Way Galaxy (and probably among several hundred nearest galaxies) would attract the attention of the old cybernetic intelligence that might probably exist now. We would be interesting! The question is what we can see or know. The topic will be farther developed in this direction.
3.2. Alternative Estimations
1. The fractional result N = 0.002275-0.00637 [105] received from the Drake Equation for the Milky Way Galaxy is correct but real N = 1 because our civilization exists at the current moment. These contradictive numbers may be reconciled by the way of simple considerations.
Let us proceed from less optimistic N = 0.002275 = 1/440 and from more optimistic lifetime duration L = 10,000 years(previous Section 3.1) which are supposed to be constant always. In order to have N = 1/440 as average for all times, then it would be for N = 1 during current L = 10,000 years, correspondingly N = 0 would be during 10,000 × 439 = 4.39 million years. In other words, one civilization with the lifetime 10,000 years has to exist some period once in 4.4 million years without the contradiction to the calculated N = 1/440.
There may be other reasoning. Let civilizations arise one after another in a great group of galaxies, having 10,000 years for each one. Then the Milky Way Galaxy must wait till 439 nearest galaxies would consecutively contain own biological intelligence during average 10,000 years each.
However, surrounding galaxies have substantially less dimensions than “our” gigantic Milky Way. To correct partially this inequality, it is pertinent to increase their number 440 to approximately 1,000 (N = 0.001). So, the Milky Way Galaxy has to expect the next biological intelligent communicable civilization 10,000 × 1,000 = 10,000,000, that is, after 10 million years. It is, strictly speaking, L/N.
Unconditionally, the consideration above is very tentative. Occasional displacements of exemplified numbers are inevitable. Our aim is to have some approximate estimation and to clear the common tendency.
Supposing the mistake to be even tenfold aside either increasing or decreasing of the period L/N, it may be evident that the time duration of absence of the intelligent communicable biological civilization in the Galaxy may be to hundreds times more than its lifetime duration.
It may be resolving the paradox “aliens exist but they are absent”. The matter is just the modest lifetime in comparison with huge cosmological times. We really may be alone at the current moment from the human position in time and space and because of the lifetime duration. However, we are not alone theoretically from “the cosmic point of view”.
Now it is possible to estimate by this way, what would be the summary number of intelligent technological civilizations in the past in the Milky Way Galaxy, taking between solitary ones approximately the relatively modest value L/N = 10 million years. It was (the end of Section 2.6) the possible duration of the Galaxy correspondent period of 8 billion years. Incredible! 800 civilizations… Huge cosmological times are the cause of such a result. It may be told modestly about several hundreds or even tens…
Again, in spite of the possible essential mistake, the tendency may be clear: extraterrestrial civilizations were plural. What is the use of it, when we cannot communicate or even know about them, being alone today? Sorry, our piece of time is too small. Please, look from the Galaxy height!
However, a part of these civilizations could create and send their space investigators, their cosmic cybernetic researchers (Section 9.5), with the certain percentage of probability (fractional coefficient). Further, several of them could survive (fractional coefficient), could overcome interstellar distances (fractional coefficient) and finally reach us (fractional coefficient). In order to have some result, initial hundreds are not excessive.
2. There is the way to make the multipliers in the Drake Equation to be not conjectural ones or to be taken “from ceiling”. The supposition below is not strict but it may give to multipliers a simple meaning. It is curious but not serious.
Let us imagine the probability of an event as the relation of time periods, for example:
The oldest Earth rock with the life imprints has the age 3.8 billion years. The planet itself has its age 4.6 billion years. The fraction 3.8/4.6 = 0.826 is the part of the period of existence of the planet when the life left imprints.
Let us consider the value 0.826 as the probability of the life to originate on the stone-iron planet with the liquid water and with other necessary conditions. If the older rocks with life imprints were found, for example, with the age of 4.4 billion years, then this value would be more too: 4.4/4.6 = 0.957.
The probability of the life origin at the earth-like planet was accepted by F. Drake as 1. He considered that life appears at once when all needed necessary conditions are and it has the same age as the planet itself. It is quite logical opinion. Then 4.6/4.6 = 1.
We go to the next. “The Cambrian explosion” occurred 0.57 billion years ago. Let’s imagine “the probability” for the planet with all necessary conditions and with age 4.6 billion years: 0.57/4.6 = 0.124.
The same “probability” may be calculated similarly to the Drake Equation as the product of two fractions: 1) “probability” of the life origin on this planet 3.8/4.6 = 0.826 and 2) “probability of the multi-cellular life “explosion” from it 0.57/3.8 = 0.150; that is, 0.826 × 0.150 = 0.124. Why is the result the same?
The cause is that the same number 3.8 is the numerator of the first fraction and then the denominator of the second: 3.8/4.6 × 0.57/3.8 = 0.57/4.6 = 0.124.
Evidently, the number of fractions while multiplying has no importance for the result. It will be always the same absolutely. It is not astonishing because all numbers are fixed. It is not important 2 or 22 fractions are multiplied.
McNeill would be satisfied. He was anxious because of decreasing of the result of fractions multiplying in the Drake Equation when their number increases [50].
This “alternative approach” does not stand the criticism from the point of the right theory of probabilities. It seems to be quite absurd. However, all numbers are not taken “from ceiling”. They are quite definite ones.
Some probabilistic information is nevertheless present in fractions above. The earlier an event occurs the more would be its “probability” and the corresponding fraction is more too. On the other hand, all events of the Earth evolution became with their own probability.
For example, mammals exist about 200 million years and primates – about 25 million years. “The probability” of their origination among mammals would be 25/200 = 0,125. If primates originated earlier then this value would be more than 0,125; if they were later then we would have it less than 0.125.
The similar situation is when it is said about the event which occurs with more or less probability. Similar only! The equality sign does not stand. However, there are no conjectural suppositions. Results are absolutely definite ones.
Let us come up to the Drake Equation with the stupid method. The probability fl of the intelligence origination on the basis of the rich life was supposed by F. Drake to be 0.01. Nobody proposed another number.
We have here 0.2 million years (Neanderthal was intelligent being) divided in 3.8 billion years (the oldest rock with life imprints) gives 0.00005. It seems to be not too optimistic and, of course, substantially less than 0.01.
The part fc of planets, where intelligent inhabitants showed the interest in the communication with other intelligent beings and they have means for such an activity, was also supposed to be equal to 0.01.
This period of humanity would be considered to be equal to 50 years. Dividing on the period of the living intelligence existing gives 50/200,000 = 0.00025.
One may object that this period and “the probability” will be twice more after next 50 years. Then it would be considered that it was initially too small. The time moves, the engineering is progressing, the estimation of N would become to be more optimistic. Is it logical?
The product of both last multipliers is 0.00005 x 0.00025 = 1.25·10–8. This is “the probability” of existence in the Galaxy of the communicative civilization originated on the planet with life.
To have in the disk of the Milky Way Galaxy the only one civilization, which is ready for the communication now, 108 planets with life are necessary statistically, according to “the probability” calculation. It coincides with the estimation of J.S. Shklowsky [46], being received by absolutely another way!
If the chance is 10–8 then 108 planets with life would statistically be necessary to have one of them with the technological civilization which has the interest and means for the communication.
The total number of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy is estimated to be 200-400 billions. Their one-half is supposed within the Galaxy disk, that is, 100-200 billions. The total number of planets may be taken approximately to be equal to stars number (very modest supposition).
1011 stars in the Galaxy disk are one thousand times more than 108 above. In order to receive one communicable civilization, that is N = 1, one planet from every thousand has statistically to have a primitive bacterial life. If N = 1/440, then a primitive bacterial life is statistically necessary on one planet from 440 thousands. Evidently, the only bacterial life is exclusively rare in these estimations!
The exemplified estimations are not scientifically strict. Nevertheless, one may be thoughtful about the hope to find in the Solar System the second planet with the bacterial life after the Earth, having only 7 planets and 10 satellites…
3.3. About the Communication
The communication by the way of terrestrial means as radio broadcasting, television, mobile phones, etc, is usually omnidirectional one. Their electromagnetic waves propagate in all directions. The transmitter power value is usually enough for the distance along the terrestrial surface.
The omnidirectional signal of the Earth radio-transmitters has already propagated today in space at a distance about 100 light-years and of the TV transmitters at a distance about 70 light-years. If somebody was so closely, then it would be necessary for him to obtain the signal, which became too weak, from the noise.
Evidently, the communication at cosmic distances, which are much more extensive, needs a huge power of the omnidirectional transmitter. To receive the strong signal to be enough and to be superior over the noise level, at the same time having the reasonable power value of the transmitter, the radio-beam must be one-directional and narrow. Such a technology is widely used.
In order to have the acceptable level of signal, the axis of rotation of the space vehicle must be parallel to the axis of its parabolic antenna directed onto the Earth.
The technological civilization lifetime period may be several times less than the necessary duration for the electromagnetic signal to overcome the distance inside the Galaxy disk. In order to receive some message from cosmic aliens, the listed problems below have to be solved. All of them were debated on the Burakan Conference in 1971 [50].
The first problem isto know or to guess the direction for the contact with the wanted party. The Milky Way stripe has only to be investigated because of expected extraterrestrials allocation (Section 2.5). There may be several regions inside the Galaxy disk with the more probability to receive the signal. However, the number of possible directions remains to be great.
The second problem is again to forecast or to guess the moment of reception of the possible message. Better of all, there may be continued listening of external radio-noise.
The third problem is to know or to define the wavelength on which the communication would be. There may be two variants. If the message is addressed to the novice, for example, to us, then the wavelength would correspond to our modern and relatively simple technology.
However, it is doubtful that somebody at a distance of 10,000 light years (quite optimistic value) knows that after this period and on this direction the new technological civilization (for example, our one) would appear.
The second variant seems to be more tempting: the interception of somebody else’s message. It is in need only to have luck to occur inside the radio-beam between the transmitter and the receiver. However, our Sun is located on the periphery of the Milky Way Galaxy disk and on the edge of thickness. The small hope is that somebody inhabits far outside.
The center of the Galaxy was photographed lately by means of using infra-red radiation. Inasmuch as the infra-red radiation is the best for this purpose, one may think that this wavelength with possible prolongation onto the sub-millimeter waves until the relic radiation (about 2 millimeters) would be suitable for the communication inside the Galaxy disk.
The less the wavelength is, the more information may be transmitted during the same time period by means of the compression. The usual television program with the duration of one hour may be modulated with infra-red waves and after that to be transmitted during seconds. We have here the fourth problem: to decompress or to expand the signal. It must be registered for this purpose quickly and in the full volume of its spectrum in order to avoid the information loss.
The fifth problem is to separate the signal from noise and to correct distortions which are the result of passing through the great distances in the interstellar space.
The sixth problem is to differentiate the artificial signal from the natural one.
The seventh problem is to decode the signal that demands to discover the coding principle.
The eighth problem is to create the equipment for listed problems solving and, of course, automatic one. It must work day and night with the automatic registration of essential events in the full volume of their spectrum.
The ninth problem is either to learn the language of the message or to understand the formalization principle and then to read the text.
The tenth problem is the final one: to understand the sense of the received alien’s message which was written neither by people nor for people.
In any case, even to decode and to read the message would be impossible, the strongly and irrefutable proved event of receiving would be the gigantic achievement.
In spite of the evident complexity of the described task and of all difficulties, there are enthusiasts who are conscious of its importance for humanity. They have the strength of mind to attempt to do that seems to be almost impossible. One of them is Frank Drake about whom was told above.
He organized “Project Ozma”, that is, listening the radio-signal around wavelength 21 cm (“the hydrogen line”) from two relatively close to us Sun-like stars: Epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti. Listening everyday for 6 hours from April to July 1960 did not give any result [16].
It became known later that planet systems of these stars would scarcely be suitable for life (Section 2.4). Besides, the fortunate chance to find living cosmic aliens so closely and simultaneously with us is negligible small (previous two sections). Other similar attempts were also unsuccessful. The declaration in the internet about receiving and decoding of “the message of three letters” is not serious.
However, it may be useful not only to search and to attempt to receive any alien’s message, but also to transmit our own “call”. How is it going?
One of the biggest in the world radio-telescopes was on the Island Puerto Rico near the town Arecibo (Fig. 1.36). Its spherical mirror was stationary before going to ruin and it had the
Fig. 1.36. Observatory “Arecibo” of radio-astronomy and ionosphere researches on the island Puerto Rico [59].
diameter 304.8 meters. It consists of 38,778 perforated plates of aluminum 2 × 1 m which lie on the steel net in the natural cavity. The inclination angle of every stationary plate was positioned individually (Fig. 1.37).
Fig. 1.37. Technicians in the special footwear are positioning the mirror plates of the Arecibo radio-telescope [16].
The irradiation device is suspended on 18 ropes to 3 masts (Fig. 1.36). The direction of the radio-beam is controlled by means of the ropes length change. The Arecibo radio-telescope can work with the wavelength from 3 to 100 centimeter. Its transmitter power is 0.5 megawatt.
The more great radio-telescope FAST began to work in China 25th of September 2016. Its design is similar to that of Arecibo (Fig. 1.38) but with the reflecting “mirror” 500 meter in diameter consisting of 4,450 plates of 11-meter size. The sensitivity of this radio-telescope is 3-5 times more than the Arecibo one and the speed of the sky scanning is 5-10 times more.
Fig. 1.38. The Chinese radio-telescope FAST while building.
There is no information about the success of this grandiose instrument in attempts to communicate with aliens whereas the Arecibo radio-telescope worked on this task as was told above.
Frank Drake, the director of the Arecibo observatory, said on the Burakan Conference that the maximal distance of the communication by means of that radio-telescope is 6,000 light-years. He added also that this distance would be 20,000 light-years after modernization. It is commensurate with the Galaxy dimensions.
Three years after this declaration, 16 November 1974, Frank Drake sent the first in history cosmic message, using the Arecibo radio-telescope. The wavelength was 12.6 cm. The radio-beam was directed onto the spherical agglomeration of stars M13 in the Hercules Constellation.
The distance to the star agglomeration M13 is approximately 24,000 light-years. It is not close even for Galaxy scale. Seemingly, there was not found nearer object for the test radiogram.
The message consisted of 1679 bits of information (Fig. 1.39a) where every bit was either 1 (the black quadrate) or 0 (the white quadrate). According to the opinion of its authors, Frank Drake and Carl Sagan, it could be represented as the picture.
In spite of only 1679 bits, the picture on Fig. 1.39a contains the amazing volume of information: from the basis of our mathematics, chemistry, biology, and genetics to the structure of the Solar system with the man on the 3rd planet (his silhouette arrests attention) and the mirror of the radio-telescope (below) with its dimensions.
All dimensions were expressed by multiplying on the wavelength 12.6 cm of the message. More detail may be found in literature [16].
The agglomeration M13 consists of about one million stars. It is several tens of thousands times less than the total stars number in the Milky Way Galaxy. Consequently, the probability to find there somebody may be less than for all Galaxy roughly in the same several tens of thousands times, that is, be close to zero, not to mention about some objects along the signal way.
It is evident that the answer in the case of its coming might be expected after 48,000 years if it were not distorted essentially during passing. Returning to previous considerations about the lifetime of the human civilization (Section 3.1), could anybody exist then or might have the interest?
After all, it is not astonishing that this message sending was called “the scientific joke”. However, this joke had unexpected continuation as a kind of the answering joke (the next Section 3.4).
Fig 1.39. The picture from the message to stars agglomeration M13 16th November 1974 [33] (a) and the similar schematic picture which appeared on the field of wheat in August 2001 [28] (b).
3.4. Amazing “Answer”
Astonishing pictures appeared in August 2001 on the field of wheat near the small town Chilbolton in Hampshire, England (Fig. 1.40). Speaking here about them is in need because there are people who interpreted it seriously as the aliens answer to the message 27 years earlier from the Arecibo Observatory.
Fig. 1.40. Pictures on the field of wheat were located near Chilbolton. The radio-astronomy observatory is in the left upper angle of the photograph, “The answer” is in the middle, “the portrait” is below. [103].
The Chilbolton picture (Fig. 1.40) consists of the same 1679 quadrates (Fig. 1.39b) as the Arecibo message (Fig. 1.39a). Every quadrate (Fig. 1.40) has the size more than 1 meter. There is also “the portrait” or possibly self-portrait (Fig. 1.40, below).
It was quite logical that hypothetical aliens would answer also by means of radio-wave with the same length 12.6 cm. “The Chilbolton answer” is evidently more complex task. It cannot be made distantly with some beam because of the well-known physical phenomenon diffraction.
Therefore, it is obvious that the wheat pattern was made at once by means of the equipment on the Earth surface and with the necessity of the personal participation. The wavelength 12.6 cm is not used for the “answer”, nevertheless it is the basic one in Fig. 1.39b and in Fig. 1.40 for all dimensions definition (instead of 1 m of the side of quadrate on the field that would be quite logical).
The wheat spikes deformation inside “black quadrates” was made on the same height above 1 inch upper the ground surface. It also confirms the local origin of patterns but not the distant one. The stable size 1 inch allows also to come to the conclusion about the amazing applied device which was called “gliptoder” [33].
The micro-holes in points of the spikes deformation would be the effect of water evaporation as a result of heating rather with the infra-red laser beam than with the micro-wave emitter.
Both variants of device have the low efficiency that makes the small probability of the autonomous energy consumption from own internal source of energy. It is achievable by means of the flexible cable from the external energy source. Both ends of the cable had to be wound onto reels.
All wheat spikes had the same deformation as the bend with twisting spirally onto the same direction [28] probably owing to the emitter moving always at this direction.
The precision of positioning of every deformed spike is amazing. The device “gliptoder” worked with the exactness of a laser printer. Pictures were located arbitrarily relatively to spikes ranges that hints at the computer usage.
It is doubtful to have the possibility to make such a work before the computers appearance. Similar complex pictures on cereals before the computer era are unknown. The computer would be located together with the energy source in a home not far off or in the parked motor vehicle.
Both wheat pictures were bounded with the frame of wholly lied spikes. It may be noted in passing that the wheat sowing is very ordered (Fig. 1.40).
“The portrait” fabrication demanded to reach the effect of partial shade (Fig. 1.40). This was made by means of the spikes deformation in several layers. The twisting direction was opposite in neighboring layers (the opposite irradiator movement).
So, it is not astonishing why “the wheat answer” is mistakenly addressed to the Great Britain but not to the Arecibo from where the initial message was sent. It may be seen on Fig. 1.36 that the Arecibo radio-observatory is surrounded with wood.
The technical genius and agrobiologist, whose portrait may be in Fig. 1.40, had to make his amazing “answer” apparently near the place of his own inhabitation. The transportation of the equipment into other country and using somebody else’s cereal field supposedly on the Puerto Rico Island was dangerous because of the possibility to be deprived of the incognito which allowed to suspect aliens as authors.
The message of 16th November 1974 (Fig. 1.39a) contains contradictions which would hinder to decode it. In spite of this, the easy and accurate decoding without difficulties and mistakes seems to be suspicious. The impression arises that the author used the information from the popular scientific literature and he avoided decoding.
So, producing “the Chilbolton answer” demanded the personal presence on the Earth. Then it is illogical to repeat the compressed information about mathematics, chemistry, biology and genetics (the upper part of the picture) from the message of 16th November 1974. This information style was invented by F. Drake and C. Sagan for the transmission through the very far distance in the digital form. The personal presence here on the Earth would allow other ways of information.
Concerning the middle of the picture (Fig. 1.39b), it may be noted that all items without any exclusion had been described in the popular scientific literature. Moreover, some of them were debatable and were criticized.
The alien dwarf with big head, the planets colonization near Sun-like star, etc… There was no one thing that would be new, unexpected and astonishing as in the supposed case of true extraterrestrials.
In general, the author of “the answering message” did not apply his talent to clear up the great mystery of aliens existence, but he substituted one mystery by the other one. He chose the very old enigmatic tradition for his joke.
Circles on cereal fields are known from the far antiquity in 30 countries during centuries. They were called in Ukraine “witch’s circles”. Nobody saw the process of their producing. Such circles were described in the book published in Germany in 1678 [33].
It is considered that the tradition goes from the early agriculture. First farmers sacrificed a part of their harvest as broken spikes in the circle form that would mean the Sun. There was joking TV film how to make such a circle in wheat by means of the peg with the cord and the board.
However, more complex pictures appeared in 20th century instead of the simple circle even to the DNA scheme and the mathematical set of Mandelbrot [33]. One wonderful picture appeared on the same field near the Chilbolton (Fig. 1.41) one year earlier than “the answering message” on Fig. 1.40.
The picture (Fig. 1.41) was similar to the image of the device for picture producing in the bottom of Fig. 1.39b. It is possible that the amazing supposed device then had been mastered, it announced about itself by its symbolic image on the field and it began to search its sensational application…
Fig. 1.41. The picture on the wheat field near the Cilbolton (on the background of the photograph) one year earlier than pictures on Fig. 1.40. The radio observatory is on the foreground [103].
3.5. The Engineering Activity
There is one more way to confirm the cosmic alien presence: to find some signs of the engineering activity. Inasmuch as we don’t know what is built by aliens, we have to propose our own projects and dreams (the futurology!).
The question was widely discussed on the Burakan Conference. One of the most outstanding enthusiasts and inventors on this direction is the professor Freeman Dyson (Fig. 1.42). He gave such a definition:
Fig. 1.42. Freeman John Dyson, the member of the Royal London Society, the member of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA [75].
Engineering in space is such a kind of the engineering activity which is possible to be observed. If the technology of the society is very high developed then the intensive infra-red radiation must be emitted as a result of its activity.
Infra-red radiation would be some side effect of the civilization existence. It represents in its own way some waste products of “the vital activity”, depending on the volume of the consumed energy.
Dyson’s idea is concretized in the scheme which was named “Dyson Sphere”. There were several variants to be considered. One of them is on Fig. 1.43, that is, the absolute spherical form is not obligatory.
Fig. 1.43. Variant of the Dyson Sphere in which the surface form provides everywhere the same absolute value of the vector of the free fall acceleration [68].
Dyson sphere is the surface which surrounds the star and rotates for obtaining the artificial centrifugal force inside it instead of the planet gravitation. The civilization exists on the internal surface in the artificial atmosphere. There is neither seasons nor days and nights alternation. Inhabitants would see their star in the zenith point of sky always and the summer day would be also everlasting.
Therefore, the radius of the Dyson sphere must be longer than the radius of the zone of inhabitation for planets in order to avoid too hot climate.
This sphere cannot be of one piece or solid. It must be of plural parts without a mechanical connection because of celestial laws. These laws also demand to exclude other planets to avoid gravitational disturbance. First of all, the planet, on which the civilization was born, must be dismantled at beginning of the building process.
J.S. Shklowsky considered that the humanity could build its Dyson sphere during 2.5-3 thousand years and thus might solve its own social and energetic problems. He calculated that all the mass of the planet Jupiter would be enough in order to have 200 gram per one square centimeter of Dyson Sphere, including all arranged on it. Evidently, the foundation of the sphere parts must be made of the very firm metal or composite material.
The Dyson sphere receives all energy of the central star. The project would solve energetic problem. At the same time, energy losses must be radiated from the external surface of the Dyson Sphere in order to avoid civilization overheating.
Inasmuch as the external surface area is far more than the star surface, the temperature must be less. Consequently, the Dyson Sphere would radiate infra-red rays. It may be observed just owing to this radiation detecting when its spectrum would be also of the specific form.
Dyson’s idea was generalized by the soviet radio-astronomer N.S. Kardashev (Fig. 1.44). He proposed the classification of super-civilizations [20] which is most popular in the world and it is often named “the Scale of Kardashev”.
Fig. 1.44. Radio-astronomer N.S.Kardashev is the director (1990) of the Astronomy Center of the Physical Institute and the academician (1994) of the Russian Academy of Sciences [83].
The Kardashev’s Scale is based on the total amount of energy or the power which is consumed by a civilization. There are three types. The power value below is taken from Wikipedia.
Type I. The civilization uses all energy which may be obtained without going out of its own planet. The consumed power is about 1016-1017 Watt.
Our Earth civilization is still zero type. We shall reach type I probably in 21st century.
Type II. The civilization possesses all the energy which its star radiates (for example, the Dyson Sphere design). The consumed power may be about 4·1026 Watt.
Type III. The civilization possesses all energy in the scale of a galaxy where it is located. The consumed power would be about 4·1037 Watt.
There are no ideas to concretize the type III design. They say that it is out of the human mental possibilities. It may be added that there would be also other causes considered farther.
So, the search of suitable infra-red sources began. “The important results… were obtained by means of the infra-red cosmic telescope (IRAC). It had the mirror with the diameter 57 cm which was cooled to the temperature 10 Kelvin degrees to decrease its own infra-red noise. The infra-red detectors in the mirror focus were cooled to 3 Kelvin degrees. The telescope worked in wave bands 8-15, 20-30, 40-80 and 80-120 micrometers. The satellite was launched onto the almost polar orbit with the inclination angle of the orbit plane 90 angular degrees relatively to the Earth equator, so that it moved constantly above the bound “day-night” of the Earth, that was convenient for drawing a map of all sky under the condition of constant weather and sunlight. The telescope work was continued without any stop during 1983 and it was finished because the resource of the cooling liquid helium was exhausted. 98 percent of all the sky was researched and about 200 thousand infra-red astronomy objects were discovered. The processing of the catalog of these objects is continued” (my translation) [46].
In particular, the astronomer V.I. Slish selected 5 most intense and probably nearest objects with the suitable spectrum of radiation which were not identified with the known astronomy objects [46].
About 2500 sources of the infra-red radiation were found around the Galaxy center. Their temperature of radiation was from –23 to +177 Celsius degrees. “Apparently, the most part of them presents the super giant stars, having the brightness 2-3 thousand times more than of the Sun, dipped into the dust” [46].
Being true to the principle of the presumption of the natural, which was proclaimed by him on the Burakan Conference, J.S. Shklowsky was compelled to admit: it is needed to agree that there are simply no civilizations of the type II either in our Galaxy or in M31 [46].
The situation with civilizations of the type III was quite analogous. Were they exist, they would be found with the modern observatory equipment.
It is understandable why J.S. Shklovsky considered our civilization in the last years of his life to be quite alone not only in the Milky Way Galaxy but also in the all observed Universe. The infra-red rays search from civilizations was unsuccessful everywhere.
One quarter of a century passed. The infra-red astronomy achieved great success. In particular, the Galaxy center was observed and registered with its black hole, which was “weighted”. However, there is nothing to be heard about alien’s engineering constructions… Does it mean that the alien intelligence does not exist in general? Are our initial pre-conditions true? The moment becomes to think about it.
All our considerations about three types of civilizations were based on the futurological forecast. The result of such a forecast depends on the basic tendency of development which is preferential and the newest.
It was known in 20th century that the energy consumption increases in geometric progression. All the logic of searches was built on this thesis. However, the process cannot be endless. Is it clear that this is the way to nowhere for the civilization? May it be true forecast for an alien civilization, which is supposed to exist for a very long period of time?
On the other hand, we have the newest tendency of the energy saving. This includes the energy recuperation on the electric transport, the quantum effect application as, for example, light-eliminating diodes for the illumination, etc. All this may help to stop the catastrophic growth of the energy consumption.
If the civilization is so developed, that it has almost 100 percent efficiency of its processes, it uses totally quantum effects, energy recuperation, etc., it would have almost no energy losses and no infra-red radiation.
Such a type may be namely long-live one without the energetic catastrophe. But the chances to observe seem to be equal practically to zero. So, the absence of infra-red radiation from energy gluttons does not mean the absence of alien civilizations themselves.
And, of course, it is impossible to think about the long lifetime of a civilization without its full harmony with the nature and without its ecological pureness. Our seas are drying, rivers are turning, woods are transformed into deserts and even the nuclear war is imagined to be a children’s game in a sandbox in comparison with the liquidation of all planets, beginning from own Earth, which exists billions years and it is extremely unique in all Milky Way Galaxy. Our civilization modest lifetime duration is supposed to be negligible small than these billions.
Besides, great planets consist mainly of the hydrogen and helium. It is necessary to explain in what manner the firm materials for the Dyson Sphere would be obtained. The metallic hydrogen is not still made. Nobody knows how the same would be made with the helium which is about 1/3 of the initial material.
The calculation of the people population numerical growth is also problematic. On the one hand, were the increase of the population in the arithmetic progression and endless, then even Dyson Sphere would not help.
On the other hand, there is the tendency in several European countries of decreasing of national population, for example, in France or Ukraine. The tendency is newer than the people population increase.
The social problems are delicate. Who must build and who will use? Besides, to build the Dyson Sphere demands the level of discipline and organization which seems to be not achievable. The thought about totalitarianism appears at once.
The safety problem was not discussed too. Planets are very small in comparison with the Dyson Sphere but they are sometimes under the meteor and asteroid bombardment. Comets from periphery of the Solar System fall onto the Sun and the Dyson Sphere would be on the way.
The list may be added but it may be already clear that to connect the alien intelligence existence with gigantic constructions of “type II” seems to be not right.
The similar situation is with “the type III”. The substance in the Galaxy volume is more rarified than inside the planet system. The Galaxy energy is contained mainly in its total mechanical rotation [1] (without the “dark energy” taking into account). It is not astonishing that there are no ideas about galaxies rebuilding.
The cybernetic civilization existence during billions of years may be imagined to be possible owing to the full harmony with the ecology without any destroying. For this reason the chance to observe them seems to be negligible. The continuation will be in Section 9.5.
Concerning the gigantic constructions of cosmic towns, which are reviewed in the next Chapter 4, they were not considered in the Burakan Conference in general because of the impossibility to see them from very large cosmic distances.
Conclusion to the Part One
People and aliens are the intelligent living beings that originated owing to the biological evolution. Having probably the certain difference in exterior, in the life organization and features, in the history, etc., they have to submit to the same biological laws, not to mention about physical, chemical and other laws of nature. They are evidently the phenomena of the same order.
The careful study of the mankind civilization origin leads to the thought about its extreme rarity because of the plurality of necessary consequent pre-conditions. The occasional absence of only one of tens of items, including unknown additional ones, would not lead to arising of intelligence and consciousness like our one. The same situation may be with aliens. They seem to be the extremely rare event.
The approximate numerical estimation of probability shows that there would be rare sparks of intelligence in the Galaxy disk. Planetary intelligent civilizations were separated by millions of years in time and tens of thousands light-years of probable distance. But the last is not essential because the time between existed intelligent civilizations in the Galaxy has the tendency to be far more than their lifetime.
Such may be the resolution of the paradox “aliens exist but they are absent”. On the one hand, our solitude in the Milky Way Galaxy is real with the high degree of probability. The nearest aliens are possible in other galaxies at distances of millions of light years. It is equivalent for us to their absence.
So, it was vainly to think that aliens existed simultaneously with us somewhere no far and they might visit us. Asking “where is everybody?”, Enrico Fermi spread silently our fortunate preconditions onto other biological civilizations whereas the problem has to be considered on the background of cosmological huge distances and times and from the wide “cosmic point of view” but not from the narrow “provincial” terrestrial one.
However, the Galaxy age is so great that the probable sequential developed technological civilizations would be plural “from the cosmic point of view”. Their number during the Galaxy history may be supposed from tens to hundreds.
On the other hand, every cosmic civilization in the past seems to be in the same solitude as we are today: there was no one alien similar civilization around to communicate with the enough degree of probability.
Is it possible to imagine these plural evolutions, ways of life, histories, tragedies, catastrophes and so on?
After millions of years of the future, we should also be very far “cosmic aliens” in the past for some communicable novice… But the unknown far planet, where it will occur, would still have today probably the rich life with amazing living monsters like our dinosaurs…
The heroic attempts of Frank Drake and Carl Sagan to communicate with the alien intelligence might therefore scarcely be successful. F. Drake’s number “50” for Galaxy communicable civilizations in our days was corrected later to 0.002275-0.00637 but these “50” seem to be quite suitable and even modest for the total number of sequential extraterrestrial civilizations in the past 8 billion years.
Is it possible to have some confirmation of expounded considerations?
The partial confirmation is not hopeless. Similarly to our civilization, another intelligent one of planetary living beings might create the artificial intelligence with the essential value of probability (Section 1.5). This artificial mind would not be a “living” one. It might exist for quite a long-time and it might be the continuation of the “parental” civilization of living beings after them. The situation is treated to be typical one. The supposed process of interstellar Galaxy space overcoming is expounded in Chapter 9.
However, in what manner do anybody move or fly through the Galaxy spaciousness to approach us? What is our own ability to travel in the space? The attempt to clarify these problems is undertaken in the next Part Two.
Part Two
Conveyance in Space
Chapter 4. Rocketry Flights
4.1. The Geographical Syndrome
This composition is devoted to the reader who prefers the rational approach to unrealizable tales. However, the science fiction exists: the corridor, in which physical laws do not act, from one galaxy to another; the door into the other dimension; the time machine; flights with the speed more than the speed of light, and so on.
The physical laws are especially irritating the authors of the science fiction. But the whole our world and ourselves in it exist according to these laws, owing to the ultimate speed of light, to the fundamental nature of the time, etc. Spaces of higher dimension, than our three-dimensional one, are only the mathematical abstraction.
The rational grounded knowledge, the engineering achievements, the search of new technologies, and such like that, is on the opposite side relatively to fairy tales but it is no less fascinating. At the same time, there are many things between these opposite sides which are not contrary to the correct knowledge but nevertheless they are debatable.
There is an expectation among them that cosmic flights of people, visiting other celestial bodies by them, the researches of planets by the way of the personal presence and even colonization by people will have the same meaning as great geographical discoveries in the past, sailing and so forth. Not objecting all this, more careful definition may be done as the geographical syndrome.
Please, imagine the famous Robinson Crusoe to be shipwrecked and thrown out onto the Moon surface or onto the Jupiter satellite with the gun and the box with a gun-powder. Would he be able to do only one farewell shot during last seconds of his life? And think, please, what ship, beginning from its start, would be wrecked…
All the humanity is divided relatively to space flights and the possibility of other celestial body colonization onto optimists or romantics and skeptics or pragmatics.
The romantic was K.E. Tsiolkovsky with his famous declaration that the humanity will not live on the Earth eternally. Steven Hawking, the well-known professor of the Cambridge University, succeeded to him. We see among optimists also the Russian cosmonaut professor K.P. Feoktistov. His opinion was that the life in the cosmic space is much comfortable in the certain sense than on the Earth: there is neither an earthquake and tsunami nor a flood and tornado or hurricane…
The old idea by K.E. Tsiolkovsky was concretized by “the architect of future”, professor of physics G.K. O’Neil (Fig. 2.1), in his projects of “space settlements” [14].
Fig. 2.1. “The architect of future”, professor of physics of the Princeton University of the USA, G.K. O’Neil [14].
Prof. O’Neil proposed four types or models of space settlements. Model 1 must contain to 10,000 inhabitants similarly to a small town. The hermetic shell has the cylinder form (Fig. 2.2) and it is the base of internal settlement with the artificial atmosphere.
Fig. 2.2. The external look of the space settlement (model 1 for 10,000 inhabitants), according to the project of professor G.K. O’Neil [14].
The cylinder rotation around its axis provides the centrifugal force instead of the usual gravitation. In order to avoid the gyroscopic effect, both cylinders are connected into the pair. The energy source for the settlement represents Sun batteries which are arranged outside. There are also the ring mirrors for the Sun light direction into the cylinder.
The most sized model 4 has to contain 20 million inhabitants. Their quantity corresponds to whole nation or state (for example, the Romania) or from whole continent (the Australia). The artist attempted to draw its internal look or “the landscape” (Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.3. The internal look or “the landscape” of the model 4 of the space settlement of G.K. O’Neil [14].
The complexity of the technology of the space settlement construction, the difficulties of the inhabitation in it, the degree of risk and especially the cost of its realization are difficult to embrace by consciousness. All the problems of a spacecraft with a crew have relation also to the space settlement. The great optimism is in need here.
Let us listen to skeptics. According to the opinion of the American astrophysicist Steven Veinberg, the Antarctic Continent and the desert Sahara are paradisiacal gardens in comparison with the cosmic space and other planets.
What is more dangerous and terrible: an earthquake, flood, tsunami, hurricane on the Earth or the artificial atmosphere loss in a space settlement because of the shock of a meteor body, a small asteroid or “space sweepings”?
The numerical probability of several dangerous situations during a long-term space flight per one year [52] may be estimated as:
The full destruction of the life sustenance system . . . . 2·10–5 (2 chances from 100,000)
The full loss of air from the inhabited module . . . . . . 1·10–4 (10 chances from 100,000)
The atmosphere pollution in the inhabited module . . . 2·10–5 (2 chances from 100,000)
The fire or explosion in the space vehicle . . . . . . . . 2·10–4 (20 chances from 100,000)
It is amazing that the danger of the motor-car accident at the age of 65-75 years is estimated in the same publication [52] as 3.4·10–4 (34 chances from 100,000). A car turns out to be more dangerous for a passenger than a spacecraft! However, the cosmonaut profession was always considered to be connected with the high risk.
The data above may be spread over an arbitrary duration of being in space. For example, if space flight duration is 3 years (the space flight onto the planet Mars with returning back onto the Earth), then the probability would be also 3 times more, not to mention about the summary radiation dose from the Sun.
It may be that the probability numbers above are too optimistic and small. The loss of 14 astronauts in the USA and of 4 in the USSR was during their flight duration to be less than one year. True, all occurred near the Earth.
The extremely dangerous situations were during the flights onto the Moon according to the project “Apollo”. At the same time, these flights duration was less than one year in 50 times.
Concerning the radiation safety of space flights, it is said that the full protection according to the terrestrial nuclear objects standards would demand the spacecraft mass to be so great that the flight itself would be impossible [52].
What is the way out of this situation? It is very simple [52]: a cosmonaut can receive the radiation dose which does not hinder him to work and to carry out his task!
The contemporary space flights were of relatively short duration. The weightlessness did not still lead up to problematic consequences. However, the orbital flights of long duration showed the difficulty to keep the skeleton of cosmonaut in the normal state. “The artificial gravity” is in need for far interplanetary flights. The usual solution is the centrifugal force owing to the rotation either of the part of spacecraft or of the whole one. But no one experiment of such a kind with human in space was made till today.
The main protection from the meteor danger is still the small probability of the collision. But the probability grows proportionally to the flight duration.
In contradistinction to great geographic discoveries, all possible points of arrival in the cosmic space are known beforehand. Besides, we know difficulties but do not know the cost of travel. “The Apollo Project” cost was of 25.2 billion dollars but today it would be more in 6 times.
The interplanetary flight onto the Mars has a hundred times more duration than onto the Moon. To speak about the cost is tactless. The orbital center will be the Sun. The members of the crew will be under the Sun radiation several years. The centrifugal force instead of the Earth gravity must be realized and tested. It is not begun up today. The protection from meteors must be the lucky fortune.
The human travels to great external planets with tempting satellites seem to be the quite Utopia. Project “Galileo” gave a lot of the scientific information from the far world of Saturn. Its cost reached 1.5 billion dollars. Please, attempt to imagine this mission to be fulfilled by human with lucky arrival back onto the Earth. And what the cost would be of such a travel if it should be real in general.
The intellectual devices have to be developed in the course of time. Their tasks will become to be more complex. On the contrary, a man has too little chance to develop himself and to compete in space with devices which he creates. The difference will only grow. Evidently, the advantage of “clever devices” for the complex tasks fulfillment has to increase relatively to human.
The human weakness is not astonishing. All living beings went on the dry land with water in their bodies. Consisting of water at 70 percent, a man is denser than a jellyfish but he is unable to mechanical overloading more than 10 units.
The step in cosmic space demands to bring also the small part of the ecological system to which a man belongs. The artificial atmosphere, the radiation protection and the artificial “gravitation”, which were told about, are such a part which might scarcely substitute totally the home ecological system.
We see what risky undertaking is the interplanetary flight for human. But it is only a temporary episode of life. It may be suspected that a constant or long-time inhabitation in space or on other planets is much difficult and dangerous. Imaging the safety to be even ideal one, the cost of such an inhabitation would be always far more than the same on the Earth, even when the ecology worsening would lead up to the more costly inhabitation. Therefore, the quantity of inhabitants somewhere cannot be numerous enough to avoid the biological degeneration.
Ideas to transform planets or satellites for the constant people’s inhabitation are usually not supported with even simple calculations. Is the Mars gravitation able to hold an improved dense atmosphere? What is the approximate time duration for cooling the Venus surface? Besides, these celestial bodies are outside of the Sun inhabited zone (Section 2.3)...
Obviously, the humanity has no alternative for any inhabitation outside of the Earth. We must take care of the own planet instead of the naïve romantic hope to colonize other planets. Cosmography is not geography. Distances are huge, the transportation is too complex and costly, circumstances may be very dangerous and merciless. Difficulties are not still known fully. We need to take a sober look at things. At the same time, possibilities of our “intellectual devices” for researches and technologies will continuously grow.
4.2. Interstellar Travels
The flight of a man to the periphery of the Solar Planet System (previous Section 4.1) seems to be very problematic. What may be said about his possibility to overcome interstellar distances which are many thousands times longer?
The question is considered today from the theoretical point of view, although several important items are still without answer. All this has the direct relation to our theme and it needs to be considered.
The theory of the interstellar flight technology remains in the rudimentary state. Several popular projects were widely debated and they are partially considered here. The temptation appears to enter these debates with the new alternative proposition (chapters 5-7).
There is the suitable object for the initial numerical estimation. The nearest star system Alpha-Centaur (Centaur is half-man half-horse) is triple one. Two stars are Sun-like and the third is the unstable little one. Planets are suspected (Section 2.4).
The distance to Alpha-Centaur system is about 4.37 light-years, that is, typical for the Galaxy region where “our” Sun is located and is moving. This distance is approximately 9,000 times more than to the orbit of the extreme planet of the Solar System, Neptune. All other stars are farther. Dear reader, please, be thoughtful.
Our terrestrial distances are negligibly small in comparison with interplanetary ones in the Solar System. It is very difficult to scope them by the consciousness. Interstellar distances surpass interplanetary ones in the same relation.
American space vehicles “Voyager” left the Solar Planet System [114]. “Voyager” has on board the metallic plate with “the letter” which would be somewhere read by somebody. This letter was thought up by F. Drake and C. Sagan who were already mentioned here. They were the first in all three actions: “radio-listening” of several stars, the transmission of the message for cosmic aliens and this letter producing too.
“Voyager 1” goes away relatively to the Sun with the speed 17 kilometers per second [114]. It is easy to calculate: if its flight direction were straight line to the Alpha-Centaur stars, then it should reach them after 76,000 years.
The thought appears that the rocketry is not suitable for reaching other stars and their planets. There will be here and in Section 4.4 one more confirmation of this thesis from another point of view. However, all existing propositions are based just on the rocketry. What is the way out of this situation?
It is evident, first of all, that the flight speed must be increased from 17 kilometers per second. How much? Our dream must have a futurological basis. 16 percent of the speed of light, which was debated lately, seems to be pure fiction. Speeds, which are commensurable with the speed of light, exist in the world of elementary particles and quanta but they are not inherent in material bodies.
Values of speed of modern space vehicles are commensurate with the speeds of celestial bodies in the Solar System. With accordance to futurology, it is logic to suppose the typical speed for interstellar flight to be commensurate with the speeds of stars or other bodies of the nearest environment in the Galaxy.
Our Sun moves around the Galaxy center with its orbital speed 200-256 kilometers per second in accordance to different estimations (Section 2.5). Speed of such an order is often named milli-light speed because 300 km/sec is 0.001 of the speed of light. Trajectories of celestial and other bodies in our region of the Galaxy with a similar speed would have a negligible small difference from straight lines.
The milli-light speed is 20 times more than typical relative speeds of our contemporary space vehicles. Their absolute speed after launching is the sum of the relative one and of the Earth orbital speed of 33 kilometers per second.
To reach the milli-light speed is the courageous dream. Next chapters 5 and 6 are devoted to the physical principle description for possible reaching such a speed value. We come now to the inability of people or aliens to overcome the interstellar distance with the full comfort, even with this enviable speed.
The milli-light speed 300 kilometers per second is less than the speed of light in one thousand times. Consequently, 4,370 years are needed to overcome the distance 4.37 light-year to nearest stars. Terrestrial or alien astronauts are demanded to exist in cosmic space 4,370 years and to be living to the arrival moment.
We close eyes onto the fact that the aim of the mission might not be essential for the humanity after 4,370 years. Our own aim here is the short review of 4 hypothetic propositions below: how to keep somebody’s life during the interstellar flight.
The first idea was to increase the duration of an individual human life which is very short on cosmic scale. However, there is still no noticeable moving in this problem. Besides, the question is about several tens of percent of duration increasing but 50-100 times are in need!
It is undoubted that such an achievement would contradict to the human nature and it may create new great problems. A long life would be applied in the society before the interstellar flights, provoking the new kind of the social inequality and the stagnation of the development. The death evidently keeps the democracy.
The second idea was the temporary exit from life or the lethargy of astronauts during the whole flight. True, it is unknown how the ageing process acts during this period too.
The automatics or “robots” must pilot the spaceship, must keep observations and events registration, equipment control, communication, decisions taking, etc. They must at the same time nurse half-dead bodies on board, must keep their life-sustenance system and so on… The list is extensive. What would occur in the point of arrival?
On the one hand, sleeping passengers would have fallen behind a 4,370 years and they could scarcely estimate rightly the final situation. On the other hand, “robots” are supposed to be so clever that the mission in the point of arrival would be fulfilled by themselves. The trouble with half-living passengers and their life-sustenance system seems to be not in need.
The third idea was similar to previous one but more exotic. It was supposed to send in flight the human cooled sperm and ova instead of astronauts. The intellectual and experienced nurse robots must transfer them from a freezer into the “incubator” in appointed moment and make the artificial impregnation, to bring them up and to educate the human persons, to prepare them after that to the mission execution [6].
Obviously, these nurse robots must have their own intellect no less than human one in order to be able to educate and prepare human persons to the mission execution. What would hinder to so clever nurse robots to execute the mission by themselves without the artificial impregnation, bringing up, educating, etc., without all the equipment for humans, and without their life supporting system?
The fourth idea was logical and very grandiose: to send to other star the whole human settlement which would be similar to that on fig. 2.2! The own source of energy is in need instead of the mirror and Sun batteries on fig. 2.2. The propulsion system is also necessary with the fuel store.
The people life and the generations sequence must be similar to terrestrial ones and the same conditions are in need. The degeneration is supposed to be avoided in such a manner.
However, even in the case of using the prospective thermonuclear jet engine for the acceleration of the mass of 450 tons, 54 thousand tons of the nuclear fuel are necessary [6]. But only collective mass of 10,000 inhabitants’ bodies is 700 tons…
Obviously, if so many people are to be sent through the far cosmic space under the huge risk, the motivation of the mission aim has to be very serious and it must not lose its importance for tens of generations during several thousands of years…
The same may be said about the previous three ideas and also about aliens’ possibility to overcome the space. The motivation either as a kind of a tourist travel, or to visit the bed-room of a famous film actress or to eat macaroni with the guard agent and so on, seems to be not enough.
So, it is beyond question that interstellar flights cannot be undertaken by living people or aliens. However, these flights are quite rational and the aim is achievable for “intellectual devices” what is already seen owing to “the Voyager” [114].
“Cybernetic persons” are supposed to be long-term ones. The matter is quite real even from the point of view of the contemporary technology (Part Three). They seem to be more suitable candidate for an interstellar flight.
4.3. The Danger from the Cosmic Substance
The cosmic space, excluding celestial bodies, is not quite empty, that was considered in the past. It is very essential for the interstellar flight, that the absolute majority of cosmic objects are not luminary ones. This fact is usually ignored by ultra-high speeds lovers but it need to be taken into account.
The black holes are ahead at the top of the list of these objects. However, they are usually surrounded in the Galaxy disk with the stars agglomeration which indicates their presence.
The range of dark objects, which are dangerous for the flight, begins from those which did not become stars (Section 2.4). Their mass is less than 7 percent of the Sun mass. At the same time, these objects would be more plural than red stars of the class M because of the objects plurality approximately inversely proportional to the size (the hyperbolic law of the distribution).
The next group is represented by bodies of planet size or “the solitary planets” with probable satellites. The less the size is, the more the number is and more the probability of the collision. There are asteroid bodies and comets with the more number; then meteoroid bodies to sand size and finally dust and gas. The gas atoms are the most plural ones.
”The dark matter” is not yet taken into attention here because its physical features are not known and it is still not found at distances to 13 thousand light-years (Section 2.6).
Mutual collisions and gravitational influence must change the trajectories. It may be the cause to meet any kind of a hindrance everywhere. The more the size is, the less the probability is to meet something but it is not equal to zero. On the other hand, the more the size is, the earlier the information about the object must be received to avoid the collision in the flight by means, for example, of the course inclination.
When the shock speed is 20 kilometers per second then the amount of the material thrown out because of erosion is 100 times more than the shocking particle mass. The speed 50 kilometers per second makes the erosion mass one thousand more than the particle mass [47].
The big meteor body is rare and the modern space vehicle may work several years without the disaster. However, it is not right to expect this comfort while flight with the milli-light speed during thousands of years. The collision energy is proportional to the second degree of speed.
Let us suppose that the spaceship is flying towards some particles with the speed 300 kilometers per second. Particles are moving in every direction with their own different speed. The energy of collision with the mass of 1 gram would be the same as of the frontal collision of two motor-cars of 30 tons each with speed 90 kilometers per hour of each one [4].
A particle on the way may be evaporated by means of the laser beam. In that case, the previous quick location is necessary. For example, in order to crash the particle with its mass of 5 milligram, the distance of the location must be 3 times more than from Earth to Moon [4].
You see the problem is not simple and easy. Now we are passing to the cosmic dust as a hindrance.
The mass of the meteor substance, which falls on the Earth with high speed, is 10 tons per 24 hours. The mass of micro-meteor substance (dust in fact), which slowly falls in the Earth atmosphere, is estimated to be 400 tons per 24 hours [19]. The modern estimation is 5-300 tons per 24 hours but the meteor component is not marked separately [64].
Thus, the total particles mass is 2-3 percent of common quantity of mass of the dispersed solid substance. But their calculated frequency of impingement is a bit less in percentage expression because of their own bigger mass.
So, the cosmic dust would consist 98 percent, meteor particles and bodies constitute 2 percent of the solid component. The mass of gas may be estimated to be 50-100 times more than the dust and meteors together. However, modern estimation gives to the dust only 0.1 percent relatively to the gas [65], that is 10 times less.
In that case the cosmic dust average density is 1.68·10–24 kilogram per cubic meter. It is 18 thousand times (!) less than more old estimation 3·10–20 kilogram per cubic meter [1]. Such an optimistic leap lies wholly on today’s estimations. Besides, the gas atoms, being 100-1,000 times more in mass, could make the interstellar spaceship to be melted or evaporated (calculations show such a perspective) after one half of the travel to the nearest star with the speed 300 kilometers per second.
4.4. Rocketry Monopoly
Traditional means of conveyance on the Earth are based on a mechanical interaction with the ground, the water, the air. The surrounding medium is used to bear them. A conveyance is made relatively to this support and by means of physical force of reaction.
Such a direct mechanical contact is problematic for the movement in the interplanetary space. Evidently, motion is possible there on the basis of celestial mechanics laws which determine the movement of all celestial bodies. It is necessary “only” to get into this space and to acquire the suitable speed.
Means of conveyance have to possess such universality which provides lifting from planet surface, passing through the atmosphere, climb, the acquisition enough speed for orbital movement and maneuverability in space. All this must be in opposite order when it is necessary to return.
A rocket satisfies all enumerated items. The supporting medium, that is, ground, water, air is not in need (but it may be hindrance for movement). It is known that a rocket receives its moving force owing to throwing off some part of its mass in opposite direction relatively to the movement. The reaction force is got in such a manner.
The effect is named in physics as law of conservation of momentum. A rocket itself is the object with variable mass. The mass is reduced because of throwing off its propulsive mass which usually represents some combustion products of rocket fuel.
The mass of fuel of usual terrestrial transport is also reduced during action. But the term variable mass is inapplicable here because of the principle of moving force obtaining without some propulsive mass throwing off.
The more the speed of throwing off is, the less propulsive mass quantity must be thrown for the same reaction force. Therefore, this speed of outflow is advantageous to be of the greatest value.
Powder rockets were used in ancient China for fireworks. The pioneer of idea of rocket using for the space propulsion is the French writer and scientist Syrano de Bergerac (1619-1655). His book “Other World or States and Empires of the Moon” was published in 1662. It contained descriptions of 8 modes of flight on the Moon and 4 modes of flight on the Sun (!), including such a way as consecutively ignited powder rockets.
A rocket may be quite independent from surrounding medium owing to its principle of action. It was very tempting because the interplanetary space was considered during centuries to be absolutely empty. (In reality, it is not true). Chiefly, rocket was out of competition and it became the monopolist because of its technological accessibility too.
The process of burning or rapid oxidation lies in the base of powerful contemporary chemical rocket engine action. This process provides lifting and moving force. Being mastered by primitive man in bonfire, this old and good process continues now to toil in furnaces of boiler-houses, including electric power stations, in internal combustion engines, in each kind of aviation engines and so on.
An opinion was pronounced from television. A human predecessor, who brought one blazing branch from forest fire, made the first step for the flight onto the Moon!
However, the delay in engineering with refusal this old and good process, as the main way of energy transformation, may be now in the head of causes of approaching fuel-and-energy crisis together with “global warming”.
The effectiveness of rocketry may be characterized with following numbers on the base of published data.
The mass of the vehicle “Space Shuttle”, which is delivered on a low orbit, is 98.5 tons (69 tons of “the space airplane” itself and 29.5 tons of its “payload”). It is in sum about 5 percent of initial mass of all rocket system before start which surpasses 2,000 tons.
The rocket “Energy” has more ecological purity but the start mass of this system is 2,400 tons. Its payload is also about 100 tons (“Space glider Buran” with its own payload). The system was tested in pilotless variant.
The gigantic start mass of the flying system is the consequence of the principle of propulsion of a rocket, of its variable mass. Such is the payment for the rocket independence from surrounding medium and for refusal off supporting. It is also the pay for its technological accessibility and possibility to realize.
Acceleration quantity of super-heavy rockets is usually in bounds to be endurable by man. In accordance with laws of mechanics, the time duration of continuous acceleration from absolute rest (relatively to the Earth surface) to orbital speed value 8 kilometers per second with the acceleration value 4g (40 meters per second in the 2nd degree) is a little larger than 200 seconds.
Such a load factor 4 is quite endurable by man. So, rocketry corresponds to human physiological possibilities. It represents convenience.
The mechanical energy (the sum of kinetic and potential ones) of “Space Shuttle” on its orbit is near 18 percent of the thermal energy of all its fuel. This fuel is of high quality and of high degree of purification.
Using thermal energy in rocketry is inevitably connected with great heat losses. Moreover, the descent from orbit demands to liquidate and to dissipate the mechanical energy of a vehicle. This energy transforms again into the thermal energy and it is lost.
Liquidation and dissipation of the great amount of the accumulated mechanical energy of an aerospace vehicle during deceleration of motion can get out of control. The danger of this process led to known accidents.
As a result, the rocketry has low effectiveness but high power intensity and material capacity. It needs great plants and launching complexes, great amount of fuel, great personnel for service and finally it demands huge expenses. The tension of finances of whole country or several countries together is necessary for the space project realization.
The situation changes not enough when the thermal process is excluded but the principle of reactive motion is remained. For example, ions of argon in the electric reactive engine are sped up with magnetic field and without using heat. Such a mode provides the speed of outflow of these ions approximately 5 times more than the usual chemical rocket engine allows. Electric energy source would be a nuclear reactor. The system is more economical one but all shortcomings of rocket remain.
So, rocketry is bulky and low-effective engineering for orbital and interplanetary flights. In the case of projects of interstellar flights, imperfections grow to absurdity.
It may be repeated that an interstellar rocket spaceship with thermonuclear energy source would have the start “fuel” mass 54,000 tons for delivery to one of the nearest stars some load 450 tons without returning [6].
Photon rocket, which is so liked in science fiction, is quite in accordance with physical laws. But consideration of engineering problems of its application leads to conclusion about its impossibility [6].
So, monopoly of rocketry as means of conveyance in space becomes some hindrance to engineering progress of civilization.
4.5. Alternative Principle Searching
The necessity to break the monopoly of rocketry is obvious. Two undertakings may be considered.
The international research program British Aerospace Systems (BAE SYSTEMS) included Project GREENGLOW which was headed by 10 outstanding scientists. The titanic work was done. About 700 engineering propositions were considered. At the same time, demands to aerospace engine of the future were formulated. They included the absence of noise and of combustion products ejection, possibility of the vertical take-off and so on [2].
The “Steering Group” of the NASA Lewis Research Center at Cleveland in Ohio “is traditionally the home of new ideas in propulsion” [2]. “Its goals are: (a) propelling a vehicle without propellant mass, (b) attaining maximum transit speeds possible, and (c) creation of new energy propulsion methods to power devices. These are goals beyond existing science with no guarantee they are achievable” [2].
Let us try to convince of attainability of these important goals. First of all, what is “propelling a vehicle without propellant mass”? A vehicle has its own mass. It has then to receive a force of reaction from another body with some mass in accordance with the Third Newton’s Law.
To exclude the propellant mass is quite logical. It means the total refusal rocketry together with all its shortcomings. All propositions among those 700 considered in Project GREENGLOW as variations on the theme of rocketry should not satisfy. Some radical solution is necessary.
However, what would be another body to exert with its mass a force of reaction instead of propellant mass of rocket engine?
There are objects in space which possess their own mass: stars, planets with satellites, meteor bodies, dust and gas. It looks like a paradox, but all of them can provide a reaction force for the space vehicle. A direct mechanical contact is not obligatory. Moreover, a distance between a vehicle and a supporting body (planet) must be very large at the same time.
Next chapters 5-7 contain the grounded attempt not only to satisfy described desires but also to receive additional advantages which were not among these desires.
Chapter 5. The Magnetic Propulsion
5.1. The Basic Principle
Two magnets in hands (Fig. 2.4) attract or repel each other. You can feel this force. It acts at a distance and without direct mechanical contact. It may be the diminished copy of the interaction between the magnetic field of the planet and the propulsor of the aerospace vehicle. But the possible distance may be hundreds or thousands of kilometers.
Let us consider firstly “the lower magnet”, planet Earth (“the upper magnet”, the propulsor, will be considered secondly).
Fig. 2.4. Two disk-shaped permanent magnets with a hole (author’s photograph).
The English physicist and the court physician William Guilbert (1544-1603) published in 1600 the book “About a Magnet, Magnetic Bodies and the Great Magnet, the Earth”. So, this scientific fact is known for more than four centuries.
The terrestrial magnetic field is named “geomagnetic” one. Its main source is supposed to be the electric currents in the layer of the liquid iron of the external core of the Earth (Section 2.3 and Fig. 1.17). Very small power in the planetary scale is consumed for this field maintaining: about 700 megawatt [29]. It is less than the power of one of four nuclear reactors in the Ukrainian power station of Chernobil.
The geomagnetic field polarity changed many times in the past [54]. In spite of this, it always protected all living on the Earth surface from cosmic rays and especially from the protons of the Solar wind (Section 7.1).
There was the general opinion after Guilbert’s book that celestial bodies are attracted to each other just owing to the magnetic force. The famous Newton’s apple was evidently non-magnetic one but it was nevertheless attracted to the Earth… The magnetic force was substituted by the force of the gravity.
Let us return to the old idea but from other point of view and on the other level. The force of the magnetic interaction, mainly repulsion force, may work for the propulsion, including the lift force which compensates or balances the gravity force.
The transport facilities lean on the planet body either owing to the direct mechanical contact with the road (motor-cars, trains, etc.) or indirectly by means of the intermediary: the water (ships, boats) or the air (airplanes, aerostats). The 3rd Newton’s Law is always satisfied: the active force is balanced with the opposite reaction force.
The magnetic field is the intermediary but without own mass. None the less, the Third Newton’s Law must be satisfied. How is it done? Nobody called “the dark force” for help. Other combination of words is used: “the quantum effect”.
The magnetic field represents the quantum effect. Almost all effects of such a kind are acting in the micro-particle world. They cannot be observed directly. We may only investigate them with indirect methods. The quantum effect of magnetic field shows its action in macro-volume that may be observed with the naked eye (Fig. 2.4).
There are three more quantum effects which become apparent in macro-volume: the electrostatic force interaction, the superconductivity, and the laser or eliminating diode light.
Quantum effects in microcosm often proceed without energy expenditure. The example may be the process of electrons rotating around an atom nucleus. It cannot be explained by classic physics. An electron would quickly expend its energy and would fall onto nucleus. However, inasmuch as the electron motion in atom is a quantum effect, the energy is not spent and an electron does not fall onto a nucleus. But it can hold only strictly fixed “levels” around nucleus owing to same reason.
The wide application of quantum effects would help to reduce the energy expenditure by mankind to the ideal minimum in the prospect.
The magnetic field is present everywhere in the Universe. It holds the next place after the common energy of the universal Galaxy rotation [1]. There is the evident cause to use magnetic force for counteraction to gravity.
Strictly speaking, the magnetic field works as the intermediary in every electric machine: motor or generator. It transmits the force between stator and rotor without a direct mechanical contact.
The return to the principle of leaning on the planet body, but owing to the natural geomagnetic field, would make propellant mass together with the rocketry itself to be not in need in principle. The aerospace magnetic vehicle is the object of the constant mass, being equipped with “the upper magnet” (the Earth is “the lower one”), that is, having the magnetic propulsor.
However, the structure of the magnetic propulsor is not evident. It needs to be concretized, including the method of control. We shall come to it in sections 5.2-5.6. All explanations will be “on fingers” only by means of words. A strict reader, who wants to know the serious physical and mathematic basis, should see it in the publications [34, 35] which are here popularized. Now we shall go sequentially from a simple design to the complex one.
5.2. The Magnetic Orientation
The term “orientation” means the choice and maintaining of the angular position of a body in space. The geomagnetic field has the only one direction in every point of space that may be the base for positioning.
The simplest example may be the needle of the magnetic compass. It is the small permanent magnet with north and south poles, that is, the magnetic dipole.
The north pole of the geomagnetic dipole is located near the Antarctic continent. Its south pole is near the north geographic pole. It attracts the needle north end which is directed (oriented) almost to the geographic north.
A magnetic dipole, such as the permanent magnet or the electromagnet, may occupy the only one stable angular position similarly to the magnetic compass needle. It may be the base for the space vehicle orientation.
Pioneers of this engineering were American space vehicles “Transit-1B” (launched 13th April 1960) and “Transit-2A” (launched 22nd June 1960). Both had on board the identical electromagnet: the disk coil which was of 10 turns of wire, surrounding the area 1 m2. The electric current in the wire was 1,000 Amperes during the short-time discharging of the silver-zinc battery.
This coil rotation together with the vehicle (or the vehicle itself rotation around the positioned coil) allows to occupy the angular position in space and maintain it. There was the invention [31] excluding the mechanical device for the coil rotation. The orthogonal mutual arrangement of three ring coils (Fig. 2.5) allow to have the analogous effect by means of the control of directions and values of electric currents in them.
Fig. 2.5. The arrangement of three ring coils with their planes and axes which are perpendicular to each other [31].
The magnetic orientation needs take into account the different direction of the geomagnetic field in every point of space relatively to vertical and horizontal directions. The necessary automatic control would use some known detecting methods, for example, the direction on a bright star or on the line of horizon in order to correct the angular position.
The geomagnetic field is mainly of constant direction in the case of a motionless rest state inside it. Therefore, being on the stationary orbit, the jet engines for the angular position correction are not in need on board of a satellite. Here is the possibility of the simple maintenance of the angular position with using the field constant direction on the board and without the propellant mass expenditure. The last shortcoming exists now when the jet micro-engines are used.
The physical effort, which turns a magnet or electromagnet in the external field, is named the electrodynamic moment. This name must be not astonishing when it acts onto a permanent magnet. Its magnetic field is produced owing to the electric current of electrons which are rotating in their atoms. The quantum process needs not energy expenditure!
The electrodynamic moment is maximal when the electromagnet axis is perpendicular to the external field direction (the magnetic compass needle is across to the field). It is zero when its axis arranges along the field (the magnetic compass needle is along the field).
However, the electrodynamic moment cannot provide the propulsion. It can produce only a turn around an axis and change the angular position only.
5.3. The Dipole Force
The electrodynamic force exerts together with electrodynamic moment on some magnetic dipole. There are two variants with the absolutely same nature and field structure: either an electromagnet (a coil with a flowing electric current) or a permanent magnet where the orbiting electrons in atoms constitute also the electric current.
The name “electrodynamic” means the force origin owing to the electric current. But this name is too wide because of the possibility of other electrodynamic force with the non-dipole nature and origin. Therefore, it is necessary to call it for distinguishing “the electrodynamic dipole force” or briefly “the dipole force”.
The electrodynamic moment is proportional to the intensity of the magnetic field whereas the dipole force is proportional to the non-uniformity of the intensity of magnetic field.
We may feel the force of attraction or repulsion of two magnets in our hands (Fig. 2.4) owing to very non-uniform field near poles of these magnets. In other words, this dipole force is revealed owing to rapid field intensity variation depending on distance.
The arrangement of steel filings on a cardboard between two magnets may illustrate the magnetic field configuration. Steel filings are lining up in some small chains which show the field direction in every point. This cardboard is only one of a plurality of possible planes. The real field is three-dimensional one.
Fig. 2.6. The field lines picture for the two magnets attraction [74].
Fig. 2.7. The field lines picture for the two magnets repulsion [74]. The horizontal lines are mistaken and must be mentally excluded.
These filings may be replaced by field lines (Fig. 2.6 and 2.7). The concept of field lines for the field presentation was introduced by M. Faraday and J.C. Maxwell.
These lines are only some geometrical images for the graphic representation of fields. The field lines do not exist really (but the steel fillings chains quite exist when they are applied). However, field lines are useful because of simple understanding and determination of a character of electrodynamic forces in a magnetic field.
Faraday and Maxwell explained the field configuration by the way of introducing also the representation about some repulsion between these lines in cross direction as “side (lateral) thrust” and about their longitudinal tension similarly to elastic filaments.
The magnetic field lines are always closed curves. Sometimes the longest magnetic line may go away into endlessness from one pole. Then some symmetrical longest line must go into endlessness from the contrary pole of the magnet. It is also seen in Fig. 2.6.
In the case of magnetic attraction, the field lines are common for both magnets (Fig. 2.6). They are closed and at the same time every line penetrates both magnet bodies.
In the case of magnetic repulsion, the field lines are not common for both magnets (Fig. 2.7). Each magnet has its own closed field lines but their form may be distorted because of a nearby arrangement of a second magnet.
The magnetic repulsion (Fig. 2.7) will be of main interest for us because of purpose to balance the gravitation force with it. In such a manner, the hope is to obtain the lift force of the magnetic propulsor of a flight vehicle, that is, to get the magnetic levitation.
So, the magnetic force is proportional to non-uniformity of a magnetic field. The more this non-uniformity is, the more magnet force interaction exerts.
One may represent a degree of field non-uniformity as the intensity of field lines mutual approaching or going away together with a compactness of their arrangement. However, the simple correct quantity exists which is available for non-uniformity estimation and computation.
It is the difference of the field intensity in some near points which is divided by the distance between these points. This quantity is named gradient. It is very convenient and widely used in physics and mathematics. The force of magnetic dipoles interaction is correctly proportional just to the gradient of the field intensity.
It is evident that the gradient of the strictly uniform magnetic field with parallel straight field lines is zero because of lack of some field difference between two near points. Fortunately, natural magnetic fields are always non-uniform ones. The force of magnetic interaction would be available everywhere.
At the same time, natural magnetic fields are usually very widespread ones. The geomagnetic field is the nearest example. The gradient in such fields is usually of small value. Therefore, the problem is how to create the sufficient magnetic (electrodynamic) force for the flight vehicle.
It is possible owing to the large extension of natural magnetic fields. The own field of a magnetic propulsor has also to be large enough. Then the force interaction would be enough too.
The situation is similar to skis on a snow. Legs are falling through a snow but skis transmit the weight force on more area with a small pressure. The snow deformation is also small and without falling through it.
However, the creation of the extensive own field of the magnetic propulsor demands great values of the electric current density in its conductors. It is the first of three problems which are detailed in sections 6.1 and 6.2.
The dipole force and the electrodynamic moment are acting together and simultaneously. If this moment is imagined as the couple of two forces then in natural fields each force of such a couple would be usually many times more than dipole force itself. However, it is not a hindrance. The electrodynamic moment can only change the angular position. It cannot change a place in space or stimulate some forward movement, that is, it cannot to provide the propulsive force.
Electrodynamic moment acting is temporary and it ceases after turning onto stable angular position (the compass needle along the field). Then it becomes zero. The electrodynamic dipole force exerts all the time when electric current flows.
So, we approach the attempt to use the dipole force in the geomagnetic field as a propulsive or thrust force in practice for the space technology.
5.4. The Invention of J.F. Engelberger
It was quite evident after the successful confirmation of the electrodynamic moment action on satellites “Transit” that the electrodynamic dipole force may be used for propulsion. It always exists together with the electrodynamic moment that is known from a textbook of physics. The first problem is to increase the relatively small value of this force for the practical application.
On November 20, 1963, the United States Patent Office had registered the patent application of inventor Joseph F. Engelberger (Fig. 2.8). His “Space Propulsion System” was patented in April 7, 1970, having the number 3,504,868 [9].
Fig. 2.8. “The father of robotics” Joseph F. Engelberger (1925-2015).
Joseph F. Engelberger referred to more early patents of his three predecessors. They were Cutler (Patent № 3,048,350 of August 1962 and № 3,088,697 of May 1963); Cherry (Patent № 3,283,217 of November 1966); Hulliger (Patent № 3,295,931 of January 1967).
We see that the inventor’s thought began to work just after artificial satellites “Transit” in 1960. These satellites were among the first ones in general.
Joseph F. Engelberger proposed superconductivity using for the great and long-time electric current value without the energy loss instead of the short-time usual conductivity. Therefore, the main electromagnet of the propulsor was of one turn (Fig. 2.9) of the flexible tubular cable of the superconductor, the cryogenic circulating fluid (the liquid helium) inside it and the heat insulation covering [9].
Fig. 2.9. The main electromagnet of the propulsor in the form of the one turn of the flexible tubular superconductive cable. Its ends 26 and 28 enter into the load stage of rocket where the cooling system and the energy source are arranged [9].
This cable is winded around the load stage of rocket before launching (Fig. 2.10). After orbiting this flexible cable is getting smoothed out owing to the magnetic field of its current and it acquires the ring form (Fig. 2.9). The current value is 4,000 Amperes in this case. It is 4 times more than on “Transit” and it may be permanent and without energy losses.
Fig. 2.10. The arrangement of the flexible tubular superconducting cable around the load stage of the rocket before launching. The only internal two layers 24 are shown [9].
Inasmuch as the dipole force value is proportional to the area, which is encircled with the “current loop”, the inventor supposed its radius a (Fig. 2.9) to be equal to 10,000 meters. The encircled area is more than on “Transit” in 300 million times!
These measures allowed to have the dipole force value in the geomagnetic field about 50 Newton, according to the inventor’s calculation [9]. The situation is not changed up today. The possibilities of the modern physics, engineering and materials provide using the magnetic propulsion for small force values for orbital flights only.
The two layers 24 of the winded cable are shown in Fig. 2.10 but the proposed length of cable is 63 kilometers. There are no estimations of the summary mass of this cable, of the amount of the liquid helium for cooling, of the effectiveness of the cable external heat insulation which might prevent the cooling agent from heating during its circulation along 63 kilometers inside the cable and so on.
It is undoubted that the task to do such revolutionary and pioneer propositions is very complex. It is impossible to solve all problems at once. The consideration of the Engelberger’s patent application by the US Patent Office continued during 7 years. Probably, important details were clarified in the process of correspondence with the US Patent Office.
Ideas are not patented. But this great idea demanded to be an exclusion. Finally, the US Patent Office decided wisely. The priority in the initial magnetic propulsion engineering was gained by the USA.
J.F. Engelberger gave little calculations but several excellent propositions and conjectures. The magnetic propulsion is not purposeful without superconductivity that was proposed initially namely by J.F. Engelberger. He was the first who understood that the magnetic space vehicle must have the on-board energy storage device and the system of control of its energy interchange with the propulsor itself. He chose the electric capacitor for this purpose and this idea is important up today.
J.F. Engelderger wrote that his System needs no propulsive mass to be thrown away and it is the body of constant mass. He proposed to use the magnetic field of the Solar Wind for the interplanetary flight. He was the first who understood that the magnetic propulsion is prospective also for interstellar flights!
An amazing fact: the recognized «father of robotics» was also the father of magnetic flying technology! (The author of these lines took care to take into account this merit in Wikipedia). Did he understand that these two things are necessary and eventually combined in the cybernetic non-living mind that inhabits the Galaxy? Intuition or foresight?
Engelberger noted that the magnetic field exists everywhere. Being the romantic, as the majority of genius pioneers, he compared the magnetic space flights with “sailing the uncharted seas at the whimsy of the winds in the early days of sea navigation” [9].
This poetic comparison is successful and it may be developed. The magnetic field has only one direction in every point of space similarly to a wind. When this direction is not suitable relatively to the flight direction, then the movement with the tack, that is, along the zigzag trajectory, may be in need.
Unfortunately, the Engelberger’s “Space Propulsion System” is not able to work. “The current loop” is the electromagnetic dipole. Two magnets without a hindrance are turning to attract each other. The detail calculation of this attractive force in the geomagnetic field is made [34]. The dipole force without measures for control will everywhere take off the device from its orbit. Switching “on” and “off” in the parts of orbit [9] are therefore not effective.
At the same time, we must be grateful to J.F. Engelberger for leaving several important problems for further solving by other inventors. The attempt to solve a few of them is undertaken in sections 5.5, 5.6 and farther.
5.5. The Artificial Angular Stability
For a start, how would be the force of attraction of two magnetic dipoles transformed into the force of their repulsion? It must be done in the natural external magnetic field without some supplementary body with its reaction force. Only own internal equipment must be used. The solution is not quite evident.
The natural magnetic field, including geomagnetic one, has always only one direction in every point. Correspondingly, the only one stable angular position of the magnetic dipole exists everywhere (the compass needle stands along the field).
The electrodynamic moment in this stable position is zero. The situation corresponds to Fig. 2.6. However, the second angular position exists where the electrodynamic moment is also zero. The situation corresponds to the contrary angular position (the compass needle is forced to be turned at 180 grades). It is the same as on Fig. 2.7. But this angular position is not stable. It may be explained by means of the mechanical analogy in Fig. 2.11.
a b
Fig. 2.11. The stable (a) and unstable (b) positions of the upper spherical body under the gravity action. Author’s drawing.
The unstable position may be permanent by means of juggling (Fig. 2.12).
Fig. 2.12. The mechanical artificial stability by means of juggling. Author’s photograph.
The electronic juggling is quite analogous. The system of three orthogonal ring coils (Fig. 2.5) is suitable for this purpose. The main force coil is drawn to be thick. It has the electric current with such direction that the own field of the ring coil is strictly opposite to the external geomagnetic field. The electrodynamic moment is zero. Two other “auxiliary” coils are in the angular position with the maximal electrodynamic moment. The minimal turning of the main coil out of the unstable angular position may be read with automatics and then corrected by means of the current control in auxiliary coils.
The start values of the destabilizing electrodynamic moment are relatively small. In accordance with calculations, the currents in auxiliary coils may be to one thousand times less than in the main one. Their masses may be less in the same relation. The mechanical connection of all three coils may constitute the thin shell in a shape of spheroid.
Changing the electric current value in the main coil, the vertical component of the force of repulsion may be such that to balance the gravity force. The received lift force does not demand the energy expenditure. It is the kind of the magnetic levitation (in more detail in Section 6.4).
However, the horizontal component of such dipole force has only one direction in every point. This direction is dependent on the necessary vertical component value and it is not still controlled. The next inventor’s step is in need in order to compete with other facilities (airplane, dirigible, rocket) which can easy change their thrust and lift force direction and so they can always choose any movement direction.
5.6. The Force Total Control
The dipole force control is not enough for the arbitrary choice of the necessary direction of force. It is possible only to change its value by the way of changing the current in the main coil (Fig. 2.5). The artificial angular stability is also not enough: the dipole force direction is changed only onto opposite one.
It is nothing to say about the competition with existing facilities without the total control of the electrodynamic force. The most tempting way seems to be the addition of a second component of some other character. Then the total control would be possible owing to the control of every component with receiving the necessary result of their geometric sum. The second force is in need but obviously of the non-dipole origination.
Please, remember the phrase from the physics textbook: “the force exerts on the conductor with the electric current in the magnetic field”. This force is just in need! It always acts in the plane which is perpendicular to the conductor with electric current on the one hand and it is perpendicular to the magnetic field direction on the other hand. (The dipole force has other direction). Establishing the conductor in the arbitrary necessary angular position in the plane perpendicular to the external magnetic field direction, it is possible to receive some demanded direction of this force.
In order to distinguish this force from the dipole one, it will be called “the cross force”. However, it is not difficult to see that the considered “conductor” is the part of the electric circuit which is always closed, for example of the circle form as “the current loop” of J.F. Engelberger. This circuit is the magnetic dipole.
To cut the part of electric circuit out, keeping the flowing current, especially to be constant one, is impossible. It is needed to avoid the conflict with physics. There was a picture in the textbook of physics where the only short part of the electric circuit was between magnetic poles. The analogous construction is in all electric machines (motors, generators). Two sides of winding coils are arranged inside the intensive field but two other are outside. So, the artificial big local non-uniformity of the external field is created. Let us go the same way.
Fig. 2.13. The closed conductor of the circle form with the electric current is arranged in the absolute uniform magnetic field, having zero electrodynamic moment. Author’s drawing.
Fig. 2.14. The same situation as in Fig. 2.13 but the conductor has the tubular ferromagnetic screen on small its length. Author’s drawing.
The closed conductor of the circle form (Fig. 2.13) occupies the stable angular position in the external uniform magnetic field when the electric current flows in it. Its plane is perpendicular to the field direction and its axis is parallel with it. The dipole force here is equal to zero owing to uniformity. The cross force is also zero because of the mutual balance of cross forces exerting at all opposite parts of the circle conductor.
The balance becomes broken owing to the tubular ferromagnetic screen (Fig. 2.14). It causes the local distortion of the field that breaks the mutual balance of every opposite cross forces. The resulting cross force appearance is verified experimentally in the geomagnetic field [34].
The cross force control here may be by the way of turning the circle conductor with the screen around its axis. Other engineering variants will not be discussed. Besides, the external field distortion with the ferromagnetic screen may not be the best or progressive. The main result is that the geometric sum of the cross force and dipole force can have any desired direction and value owing to the currents control.
It would not be serious to dream about the practical realization without the previous theoretical foundation as a kind of described above. As we know, all that does not contradict to physics can be made (William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin). The firm theoretical basis opens the possibility to discuss questions of the practical realization.
Chapter 6. The Magnetic Vehicle
6.1. The Energy Storage Device
The magnetic propulsor in the narrow sense, principles of which were reviewed in the previous Chapter 5, must carry electric current, that is, it needs to be supplied with the electric energy. Supplying device is in need, which not only gives the energy but also it could receive it back and store for further using again.
We must not be satisfied with the existing situation when the consumed energy for the transport movement is finally dissipated and lost. It is not astonishing after this that the energy consumption by the civilization grows in geometric progression and the climatic disaster threatens.
On the contrary, the energy recuperation, which is widely used in the terrestrial electric transport facilities (electric train, tram, trolley-bus, electric car) quite corresponds to the energy saving and to the progress and safety of civilization.
The electric motors of the terrestrial transport are the partial case of the electric machine. They can work both in the motor regime and in the generator one. In the last case, they can work as generators during the deceleration and the descent “from the mountain”.The energy recuperation or the energy regeneration of the modern electric transport just gives the generated energy back to the contact net.
The electric motor-car is the facility which needs no contact net and it is an autonomous one. It is in principle the nearest relative to the magnetic aerospace vehicle although the last one has to move in three dimensions and without a road instead of the two dimensions of the electric car motion on a road.
“Motor-wheels” or the electric machine of the modern electric car can generate and give back during deceleration and descent to 30 percent of the energy which was spent during the acceleration and ascent “onto a mountain”. However, the main problem of the electric car is its energy storage device: the galvanic battery or electric accumulator.
This device has the low energy capacity value per the mass unit or, on the contrary, the big mass value per the stored energy unit. It is the main hindrance for competing with usual motor-cars. It is nothing to think about using such a battery on board of the magnetic aerospace vehicle, although small electric quadrocopters or drones using aerodynamic lift force can fly shortly.
We shall follow to J.F. Engelberger who wisely used the electric capacitor as the on-board energy storage device although he did not calculate the real capacity value which was in need. We shall think about the hypothetic electric super-capacitor with the enough capacitance value, with the great break-down voltage, with negligible energy loss and self-discharge, with the high service duration, and the best ecology.
The mono-crystalline dielectric with the great absolute capacitivity produced owing to the nanotechnology would be suitable. Obviously, there may be variants which are difficult to forecast. Of course, the contradiction to physics must not appear in our suppositions.
The energy storage device must be connected with the magnetic propulsor superconductors by means of the control system. Its necessity was also evident already for J.F. Engelberger but without concretizing. Let us follow him again.
There is no similarity to the oscillatory circuit because of the uncertain long duration of the energy store either in loops of the propulsor or within the capacitor battery. The superconductive control system is rational on the base of electronic components which, as it is known, correspond to all known elements of the semi-conductor electronics.
It is premature to discuss about the principles of the scheme building. It may be said only that there must be provided both switching-on loops to be closed with long-term superconductive currents and the capacitor battery sections to be switched off with long-term charge keeping.
There are three different cases of energy storage device using. Correspondingly, three stages of development or three levels of perfection may be seen.
The first stage or level is meant when the electric energy circulates between the capacitor and propulsor to provide the artificial angular stability (Section 5.5). It has the sense of the reactive electric energy. It is not spent but only circulates.
The better the sensibility and reaction rapidity of the automatics is, the less circulating energy value is in need and the capacity value may be less too.
The second stage of development or the perfection level means that the energy storage device can give the energy amount, which will be enough to provide the acceleration and ascent of the aerospace vehicle. The device must receive back this energy during deceleration and descent (the process of the energy recuperation).
The capacity value on this perfection level is needed about one thousand times more than for angular stability keeping. In that case, to provide also the artificial angular stability demands 0.001 of the whole capacity. True, the capacitor may be polar one. The modern specimens have better energy characteristics than usual non-polar ones.
Although the mechanical energy of the acceleration and ascent of the vehicle demand the active electric energy consumption, the further recuperation of this energy with the great efficiency might have finally the same sense as the reactive one. Some new meaning or term would be needed in electrical engineering.
The third level of perfection means the energy storage device capacity which can give and then to receive back the necessary energy value for creating the vehicle working magnetic field. The last one is the most energy-consuming subject and even the energy for the mechanical movement would be its small part.
The energy for the vehicle magnetic field creation is exactly reactive one. However, it is in need “to pump” this energy initially. It may be not spent further in principle. It must be returned back, for example, after landing on the ground.
It is possible to keep this energy in the launching complex, to transmit it to the magnetic aerospace vehicle before launching, to transmit it back to the launching complex after landing. But on that condition its autonomy would be lost.
On the contrary, if the storage on-board device were able to contain all the energy for all three enumerated purposes, then the space vehicle should be absolute autonomous and be able to fulfill all kinds of missions.
The less the mass of the magnetic vehicle is, the less its working field is in need. It is evident that the struggle for the mass minimization would be in the magnetic propulsion engineering at least no less than in the rocketry and aviation.
Concerning the internal losses of energy for the automatics work, measurements, communication, the self-discharge of the energy storage device, etc, one may see that their summary percentage has to be substantially less than the energy for the working magnetic field, for the mechanical movement, and for the artificial angular stability.
The power of the own energy source is supposed to be the small percent of the power of the on-board energy store device. Moreover, the magnetic vehicle could work some time without the own energy source and supply energy losses owing to its on-board energy store device.
One may see that the energy storage device is more important than the on-board energy source. The last one may be of one of known principles of work, including Solar batteries and nuclear reactor.
The magnetic vehicle is not the most question of vital importance for people. When the second perfection level of the energy store device will be achieved then the first user will be, of course, the electric car. The air in towns would be cleared and the fuel problem would not be threatening.
The third perfection level of the energy store device being reached, then all the electric energy transmission will be not in need. Electric stations will work for energy storage devices charging and recharging. The 1/2 of the produced electric energy, which now is lost during the transmission, will be saved.
It is clear that the problem of the energy store device creation is the general-engineering one. Every step in this problem solution will make all civilization to be another with other way of life.
If such a prospective imagination about the powerful storage device seems to be doubtful for you, then remember, please, the note of Feynman in his famous “Lectures on Physics” at beginning of Chapter 1 of volume 2 [11]. Our bodies consist of electric charges of two kinds: positive (protons) and negative (electrons). But the balance is so exact that we do not feel any force. If this balance were destroyed only at 1 percent, then the force between you and your neighbor should be so great that the Earth could be moved! Probably, this 1 percent is just enough for our aim achieving.
One may look with the envy at efforts and costs spent for example, for the nuclear weapon creation. But the energy storage device creation is in need no less…
Obviously, the prospective magnetic aerospace vehicle may be created namely in the future perfect civilization. The same would be said about two next problems of the magnetic vehicle creation (Section 6.2).
6.2. Materials and Design
The magnetic propulsion may be used today for the relatively small thrust force on the orbit around the Earth after launching with the rocket, as J.F. Engelderger proposed (Section 5.4). However, the matter is to achieve the prospective magnetic aerospace vehicle which may be able to ascent or to lift from the Earth’s surface quite independently without the help of rocketry and then to descend also without help.
The next two scientific and technological problems on the way of the magnetic aerospace vehicle creation are not so evident as the previous one in Section 6.1, but they are also general engineering ones with no less effect and importance than that first. They are in fields of the superconductivity and the cross-force creation.
The superconductivity moves today in the direction of increasing of the working temperature. There are, for example, ceramic specimens. However, “the warm superconductivity” is in need in order to exclude any cooling or cryogenic system fully.
The most perfect and tempting superconductor is the metallic hydrogen. The most widespread in the Universe element stands in the Mendeleev’s Table together with metals not occasionally. The hydrogen turns into the metallic phase under the pressure about 2 million atmospheres. Its meta-stable phase is forecasted [17] after pressure removing (the Nobel Prize 2004 to the Russian physicist V.L. Ginzburg, 1916-2009),
In accordance with the theory, the metallic hydrogen in the meta-stable phase would have the mass density slightly more than water. It would be able to be melted or chemically connected with other metals. It would be also the “warm” superconductor at temperature up to +200 Celsius degrees [17]! It is the most desirable material for the magnetic space vehicle construction. The continuation of this topic is in Part Three, Chapter 9.
The suitable example for the explanation of “the meta-stable phase” is the diamond. It is the carbon, which remains in the meta-stable phase after removing the great pressure, under which it was created in Earth bowels.
There is also the reserve to increase the existing current density of superconductors. The speed of the superconductive electrons movement defines the current density value. This speed is today estimated as several centimeters per second.
Supposing the upper physical limit to be equal to the speed of electrons in atom, that is, about 0.01 of the speed of light, we have the theoretical reserve of the growth of the current density of superconductors to 1 billion times.
Unfortunately, usual superconductivity is destroyed by the own strong magnetic field of the current. In order to avoid partially this effect, the superconductive wire is made of plural micro-wires surrounded with usual conductor named “the matrix”.
Such a way is possible, using also nanotechnology. We cannot still know what inventions will be made by the engineers of the future. The discovery is just that is impossible to forecast.
We may see that the problem of the prospective magnetic aerospace vehicle creation in its full scale is the problem mainly of the corresponding materials producing. It is not astonishing. Every new step of the development in the aviation and aerospace technology demanded new materials. However, now the step is more serious. But the aim is quite noble: to advance the future of civilization.
Is it in need to explain that the materials problem cannot be solved by one person?
All told above may relate also to the problem of the cross force creation. The author’s solution described in Section 5.6 was palliative one and for the proof that cross force using does not contradict to physics, that it may be verified in the experiment, that the electrodynamic force total control is achievable, and there is the base for the theory farther development.
Unfortunately, the ferromagnetic “screening” pipe (Fig. 2.13) is undergone to the magnetic saturation. The magnetic conductivity is decreased because of the surrounded current growth. In order to correspond to the modern physics, one may desire only the growth of the magnetic permeability up to the infinity similarly to the electrical superconductivity, and of course, without the magnetic saturation.
The necessary values of super-currents for the dipole force creation are abundant for the cross force creation. The small and weak “screening” would be enough.
However, the certain narrowness of the engineering choice is present here. It began from the cross force receiving and its correspondence to the physical and mathematical theory of the electricity and magnetism. It continues up to its control problem.
The modern theory of electricity and magnetism was built in 1873 by James C. Maxwell (1831-1879) as the generalization of experiments and views of Michael Faraday (1791-1867).
All modern electric engineering, energetics, electronics are based on the scientific information received by these two outstanding creators. The technology needs no any sufficient additions or changes of this theory during 150 years, as if being satisfied and needed no farther development. However, the magnetic propulsion needs.
It would be supposed that either two great scientists received the ultimate truth or there is the certain stagnation of theory today.
The serious attempt to revise the existing theory of electricity and magnetism was the doctrine about the magnetic monopole of P.A.M. Dirac (1902-1984). Spreading of this doctrine onto the macro-volume, if it were possible, should give new possibilities for engineering. However, the magnetic monopole is not found in experiments up today. We shall return to this problem in Section 11.6.
The next topic of this section is the supposed design of the magnetic space vehicle. Strictly speaking, it is premature before the clearness with materials. On the other hand, it is not right to speak so much about the subject without some initial approximate imagination of its structure and exterior.
The concretization of a prospective project is difficult, it is always vulnerable to criticism, and it is usually avoided. For example, Eugen Sänger (1905-1964) wrote the extensive investigation of the photon rocket mechanical movement [42] but one half of a page was enough for him for the schematic design of the photon rocket itself.
This example is not desirable for imitation. Be kind, please: the criticism is in need to be less emotional but more constructive.
The form of the magnetic aerospace vehicle is defined by its propulsor. In order to hold own internal electrodynamic forces from its super-currents, it must be the body of revolution: spheroid (sphere, ellipsoid, lentil, lens), torus (ring), cigar, cylinder, etc.
The design of the magnetic space vehicle must satisfy two contradictive demands.
On the one hand, big dimensions are advantageous. When the aerospace vehicle mass is given and the intensity of the own field is known, the more the surrounded with working current area is, the less this current value is in need. Then the energy of the working magnetic field is also less. The energy quantity is proportional to the second degree of the current value.
However, it is not serious to follow to J.F. Engelberger with his 20-kilometer diameter of the propulsor. But the size to several tens of meters would not probably be avoided.
On the other hand, the less own mass of the vehicle is, the less the necessary own working field is in need. The same is concerned currents and energy.
So, the magnetic aerospace vehicle must have the maximal size and the minimal mass. One of ways to satisfy these contradictive demands may be the thin film design.
The surface of the body of revolution may be made as the multi-layer thin film. This shell surrounds the empty internal volume. It is strengthened with the electrodynamic forces of flowing currents as if to be inflated similarly to a ball. It may seem to be similar to the solid body.
There is the similarity to an aerostat. But the aerostat shell is inflated with the internal light gas. The aerostat receives its lift force owing to the Archimedes’ Law. The magnetic aerospace vehicle receives its lift force owing to the electrodynamic interaction, mainly as the repulsion, although the aerostatic regime is possible. However, objectively, the gaseous atmosphere is not in need for flight.
Thin layers of film may be imagined mainly as a kind of the mono-crystal structure. Such structures are supposed to be a product of the nanotechnology. At the same time, each layer may have the thickness of several molecules. It may be fully or partially transparent.
Each layer may have the controlled transparence and color similarly to liquid crystals. Changing the color of the external covering layer from black to white or even reflecting may help to maintain the temperature regime.
The surface curvature may be used for the electromagnetic waves receiving and transmission. One of layers would consist of the “Solar batteries” if they are applied. Layers of film superconductors of the propulsor, including the angular stabilization system, may be simultaneously the capacitor plates. The insulation layer may be its dielectric.
In general, the combination of several functions gives the mass gain. The multi-layer structure may be only a possible variant. The other variant may be supposed, when all the system would be able to be so reorganized that every atom or molecule of the shell would participate in different functions both sequentially and simultaneously.
The last topic of this section is people of crew on board of the magnetic aerospace vehicle. Crew members and their life sustenance system need the special accommodation. Continuing the analogy with aerostat, this accommodation may be named “gondola”.
The superconducting material of the gondola shell may protect its internal volume from the penetration of the external magnetic field without special automatics.
The magnetic space vehicle with the crew may be of the “two-module” arranging. The described spheroid shell of the multi-layer film acquires the sense of the power or carrying module. Its purpose is the same as the airplane wings or the dirigible body together with engines. The gondola is an inhabited module with the rational form to be also spheroid.
Almost all variants of the mechanical join of these two modules lead to the mechanical stresses concentration in junction points on the one hand. On the other hand, the magnetic connection is tempting because of stresses distributing uniformly at each layer. The gondola may not be connected with the power module mechanically but it is rational for it to be suspended in the intensive magnetic field which is created by the power module (Fig. 2.15).
Fig. 2.15. The gondola (below) and the power module (above) are magnetically connected with each other. The form of both ones is spheroid (lens, lentil). Author’s drawing.
The gondola shell must have the multi-layer structure on the base of the same principles as the power or carrying module but with two distinctions.
The first distinction is that the intensity of the magnetic field of the gondola “propulsor” may be substantially less than the great one of the power module. The last one uses the relative weak external natural fields whereas the gondola uses the powerful internal field of the power module. Therefore all construction of the gondola “propulsor” is evidently more delicate than that of the power module.
The second distinction is the automatic control of the gondola “propulsor” which must provide the magnetic levitation in the field of the power module. When the field of the power or carrying module is changed, then the synchronous change of super-currents of the gondola “propulsor” must provide either keeping of the mutual location of both modules or the given law of the joint movement.
So, the control problem for the gondola propulsor has the subordinate or dependent character. The problem of the angular stability looks also differently.
The magnetic suspension of the gondola in the field of the power module gives several important advantages listed below.
The gondola may occupy any advantageous position during the flight and it may keep this position at a chosen distance from the power module. It is possible also for the gondola to be close to the power module, which then works as a shield against undesirable radiation and the contrary gas and dust during the flight on the great speed.
The crew safety is increased owing to the distant location of the gondola during the flight in the case of the accident of the power module. It is also advantageous in the situation of the unstable angular position loss and returning onto the initial position.
The transposition is a very simple operation, that is, the substitution of the power module or the gondola even during the flight. The interchange of gondolas or power modules is possible also even during the flight. One power module can carry two and more gondolas. The reserve modules of both kinds are possible too.
The gondola would descent and land on the surface of a celestial body whereas its power module would wait on an arbitrary height above.
The magnetic suspension of the gondola provides the amortization or softening of sharp shocks (Section 7.2) and the short-time mechanical over-loadings. The value of these last ones would be decreased owing to artificial increasing of the time of the action. The gondola can lag behind of sharp moving of the power module.
In general, the dynamic over-loadings represent the serious problem for a man on board of flying vehicle during accelerations, decelerations and steep turns. All existing facilities and ideas for softening of these over-loadings [15] are palliative ones. They do not save from great over-loadings fully.
The mechanics of the process may be simply analyzed. The matter is the balancing of two opposite forces which exert on every point of the human body simultaneously, according to the 3rd Newton’s Law.
The remarkable case is the movement along the orbit of the artificial satellite. The weight (gravitational) force exerts on the every point of the human body. The opposite centrifugal force of the orbital movement is equal and exerts also on the every point. Both forces are mutually balanced in the every point and the force between neighboring points is zero. Therefore, a man does not feel any force exerting and he is in the state which is called “the weightlessness”.
The rest state of man or his usual slow movement on a planet surface is the other case. The gravitational force is again exerting on every point of a body but the ground provides now the opposite force of reaction. It impresses from below onto the feet. The skeleton helps to distribute this reaction force between points within all the body.
The analogous situation occurs during over-loadings. The pilot easy-chair presses on the surface of the human body. The opposite inertia force exerts on the every point of a body. The skeleton comes to the help again. However, when the over-loading is great (10 and more times) then traumas may be possible.
If the force of acceleration, deceleration, etc, were acting on the every point of the human body, but not on its surface only, then a man should not feel this overloading similarly to weightlessness. The question is how to reach this force distribution.
One of the possible ways would be to call for help the already known intermediary: the magnetic field. It would be the same as in Section 5.1 but for balancing the inertia force. Experiments are in need what value of the magnetic field intensity may be endurable by a man and at what duration of acting. The same concerns currents through his body, especially curl ones.
The magnetic field influence onto living beings is studied not enough. The geomagnetic field is not only safe but also useful and necessary. However, the intensive field may cause galvanic-magnetic effects in organism which are studied not enough and which would be dangerous.
In particular, impulses, which are transmitted along the nervous fibers, are considered to be of the electro-chemical nature. The nervous length to legs and arms is more than to eyes and hears. Therefore, when the magnetic field intensity grows, then the temporary paralysis of limbs would occur earlier than the temporary loss of the vision and hearing. A man can see and hear but he would not be able to move.
The heightened attention to the dynamic over-loading here is not occasional. It will be seen in Section 6.6 that the magnetic space vehicle is the friend of over-loadings. But over-loadings are the enemy of a man.
It is indifferent to the magnetic vehicle energy loss, what is the start speed value, because of the following energy recuperation.
The impossibility of a man to endure great overloading leads to the increased flight duration of the magnetic aerospace vehicle (Section 6.6) which is again disadvantageous for him. His presence on board of the magnetic space vehicle is possible in principle but the important advantage of this vehicle to reach high speed quickly and thus to shorten the flight duration cannot then be used.
The development of aviation and rocketry began also “on a paper”. The practice was always forestalled by theory. There was the additional stimulus for the progress. The same situation is with the magnetic propulsion. Although the difficulties are huge, it is easy to see that the gain is also great and it may justify difficulties overcoming. The gain after listed problems solving is reviewed in next Sections 6.4-6.6.
6.3. The Earth Magnetosphere
A short note about the geomagnetic field origination was in Section 5.1. It is necessary to return to the topic of the geomagnetic field because of using this field by the magnetic aerospace vehicle. Moreover, all the magnetic aerospace vehicle flight has to be considered to consist of two main situations: within the magnetosphere of planet and out of it. So, several words about the Earth magnetosphere are in need.
The word “magnetosphere” means the region of the space around the planet where its magnetic field presents (Fig. 2.16) [5]. The interplanetary field represents the magnetic field of the Solar Wind. It is the protons flow shown as narrows on Fig. 2.16a at left. This field has the intensity thousands times less than geomagnetic one.
Fig. 2.16. The schematic longitudinal cut of the Earth magnetosphere (a) and its three-dimensional picture (b) imaged by means of field lines [5].
The word “magnetosphere” must not be understood literally. On the one hand, it has not a spherical form and it is drawn out and fickle under the influence of the Solar Wind (Fig. 2.16a).
On the other hand, this word means also the structure which is mainly of the dipole form. Its dipole component is basic one. The Earth is the big magnet as W. Guilbert said.
The Earth sphere is depicted on Fig. 2.16a as the small circle on the crossing of coordinate straight lines. The thickness of the Earth atmosphere is less than the circle line thickness which depicts the Earth surface in the scale of picture on Fig. 2.16a.
An airplane, helicopter and dirigible can fly only in limits of lower layer of the atmosphere to the height of 20-30 km. The magnetosphere dimensions are hundreds times more and the same may be said about the spaciousness opened for the magnetic aerospace vehicle.
The atmosphere has no influence onto the magnetosphere structure. Therefore, the physics of the magnetic propulsion is identical both within the atmosphere and out of it. The only difference is the air resistance but there would be another cause of this resistance reducing in Section 7.2.
Going out of the magnetosphere limits, that is, hundreds times higher than airplane, helicopter and dirigible can fly, the magnetic aerospace vehicle has to submit wholly to the laws of celestial mechanics.
It is evident that both situations, that is, within the magnetosphere and out of it, must be considered separately and sequentially that is made in next sections.
6.4. The Magnetic Aerospace Vehicle within the Magnetosphere
It was shown in Chapter 5 that the electrodynamic force of the magnetic propulsor can have theoretically any desirable direction and value. It is in need here its vertical component which is directed upwards and it represents the lift force which provides the magnetic levitation of the vehicle in the natural geomagnetic field.
The simple model for the illustration of such a state may consist of permanent ceramic magnets of the disk form with the circle central hole (Fig 2.17a). The upper magnet is freely put on the vertical non-magnetic glass rod in the position of repulsion.
а b
Fig 2.17. The permanent magnet of the disk form with the central hole in the rest state owing to the levitation by means of magnetic field (a). The rest state when the support is provided owing to the direct mechanical contact (b). Author’s photograph.
The rod substitutes here the angular stabilization system (Section 5.5) and keeps the upper magnet to be directed with its identical pole onto the lower one, preventing it from overturning.
The upper magnet in Fig. 2.17a may be in the state of levitation for the indefinite long time. It is evident that the energy is not spent here (the quantum effect!) This state has no difference in the energy sense from the rest state with the direct mechanical support (Fig. 2.17b).
The magnetic vehicle levitation in the natural geomagnetic field is physically the same process. The scale and distances are only different. The super-currents exist in the propulsor without the energy loss. It leans upon the planet body, using the magnetic field as the intermediary. The magnetic field itself has no its own mass.
In order to pass from the motionless levitation (state of rest) to the horizontal movement, the electrodynamic force of repulsion between the planet dipole and the vehicle propulsor must be inclined forward. It is analogous to the helicopter when it passes from “hovering” to the horizontal flight and when its carrying propeller must be inclined forward.
In this case there are two components of the electrodynamic force: the vertical lift one of the same value as during the rest state and the relatively small horizontal one which balances the inertia and the air resistance. The same is of the helicopter but its force is of the aerodynamic nature.
It is less evident but the electrodynamic lift component during the horizontal flight need not the energy expenditure again because of the continuation of the magnetic levitation. There is the similarity to the dirigible because its lift force does not demand the energy expenditure too.
However, both the dirigible and the helicopter can flight only to the height 10-20 kilometers. The magnetic aerospace vehicle is supposed to be able to the controlled flight within the Earth magnetosphere to tens of thousands kilometers of height.
The matter with the energy for the horizontal propulsive force component is quite another thing. This component balances the inertia force while the acceleration and the air resistance. The energy for inertia overcoming is transformed onto the kinetic energy of the vehicle. This energy must be returned back during the deceleration.
The energy for the air resistance overcoming is “dissipative” one. It is lost. However, the process is not wholly aerodynamic one. It has certain magnetic peculiarities which will be considered in sections 7.2-7.3. There is the cause of the more economical resistance process than in the usual aerodynamics.
The magnetic aerospace vehicle possesses its own mass and it possesses also its kinetic and potential energy. When the flight is strictly horizontal, the potential energy is constant and it does not change.
The potential energy of the aerospace magnetic vehicle increases during, for example, its ascent from the Earth surface. It demands the temporary electric energy expenditure from the on board energy store device. The propulsor works then in the motor regime.
The potential energy transforms back into the electric energy during the descent when the magnetic propulsor works in the generator regime. This electric energy has to be accepted by the on-board energy store device.
As it was said above, the analogous processes are with the other kind of the mechanical energy: the kinetic energy. The energy recuperation is the important property of the electric machine. It was proved [35] that the magnetic propulsor is the kind of the electric machine, rather of its armature.
The role of the stator of the electric machine plays here the planet body. Its geomagnetic field plays role of the exciting field of the direct current electrical machine. The energy is transmitted in such a machine only in the armature electric circuit but it does not circulate in the magnetic circuit of the excitation.
The planet magnetic field transmits only the support but not the energy. Here is the cause of the safety of the planetary magnetic field and of the ecological purity when the magnetic aerospace vehicle flies.
It was said above that the height of the Earth magnetosphere is hundreds times more than the Earth atmosphere. Consequently, the air resistance would be absent during flights of the magnetic aerospace vehicle out of the atmosphere.
Let us consider the movement of the magnetic aerospace vehicle along some closed way within the gravity field. It may be represented as the plurality of ascents and descents, of accelerations and decelerations. All of them mutually cancel one another. It corresponds wholly to the proof in the physical text book that the final work value of the movement along the closed way in the potential gravity field is zero.
Inasmuch as the transport conveyance is usually along the close way, that is, the transport facility returns back to the point of departure, the magnetic space vehicle is near an ideal one. Besides, it is the object of the constant mass.
Returning to desires and demands of scientific organizations in Section 4.5, one could see that the magnetic aerospace vehicle corresponds theoretically to all those ones without exclusion.
The energy temporary output depends only on the final height and final speed but it does not depend on the time duration for reaching these given height and speed. It is advantageous for the people on board of the magnetic vehicle. This time duration is essential only for the service expenditures: angular stability, control, communication, self discharge of the energy store device, etc.
However, the situation is quite another when the flight has to be out of the planet magnetosphere. It will be considered farther in Section 6.6.
6.5. The Competition and Cooperation
The magnetic aerospace vehicle is the prospective transport facility. It is interesting to compare it with other prospective projects before passing to Section 6.6. Consequently, the digression № 3 is below.
It is useful to acquaint with three other prospective ideas: “the anti-gravity”, “the space lift” and “space electric stations”. The magnetic aerospace vehicle would compete with two first or collaborate with the third one.
The gravitational or weight force, which is so habitual for us here on the Earth, turns out to be disadvantageous or the hindrance for a flight. Every flying object from the bird to the space rocket has to parry or balance its own weight (and also inertia force) by means of the opposite lift force.
The different physical laws are used to obtain the lift force. A dirigible and aerostat use the Archimedes’ Law. The bird, the airplane, and helicopter use the laws of the aerodynamics, the rocket – the Law of Conservation of Momentum, the artificial satellite – Laws of the Celestial Mechanics, the magnetic aerospace vehicle – laws of electrodynamics. The realization demands certain difficulties overcoming. The amount of energy may not be small.
The thought or hope appears: inasmuch as the weight force is the hindrance for flight, let us reject it. Or better, let us control over the value of the force of the weight or gravity!
It is the same as the purposeful change of the mass value of a body. According to the 2nd Newton’s Law, mass and force are mutually dependent. If the mass of a body is twice less, then the weight force would be also twice less. Moreover, the acceleration would demand the twice less force too. The expenditure for the potential and kinetic energy should be also less.
This direction of the scientific thought was named “anti-gravity” or “the control over mass”. The solid organization The Weights and Measures Department of the USSR was interested and sponsored special research in 1959. It is easy to imagine what upheaval should be in all the world trade if the mass were controlled arbitrarily! The answer was calming.
The gravity force is unchangeable. It is the fundamental one. It later became known that even the black hole, this enigmatic object, which swallows up all, including light, subordinates to the gravity law. Its own presence may be detected just owing to its gravitational influence onto nearest stars and gas.
The same relates to the mass. It may be divided, joined, transmitted, transformed into the energy, but it cannot be changed or eliminated.
None the less, Russian enthusiasts and their customers undertook experiments which were amazing, excellent, perfect, complex, and inventive. One of them was the attempt to screen the gravity force with the moving superconductive plate. However, there was no detected effect in limits of the devices accuracy.
Leaving the scientific partisans to struggle against the fundamental laws, let us attempt instead of it to change the inventive problem formulating to the following: “to balance the gravity or inertia force with other opposite force, which may be controlled with exception of the energy expenditure”.
The described electrodynamic force is suitable but it is not still received in the full scale. At the same time, the theory shows such a variant to be more real than the control of mass or anti-gravity and with the full respect to the fundamental laws. This way of the goal achievement seems to be more simple and hopeful. The magnetic flight provides all advantages of so desired “mass control” without the contradiction to physics.
The second prospective idea for consideration is the space lift (Fig. 2.18). It is supposed to be the good competitor with the rocketry because of its energetic efficiency [111]. Besides, it is the body of the constant mass.
Fig. 2.18. The Space Lift in the artist imagination. The Earth sphere is seen below [111].
The main and the most problematic part of the space lift is very long rope of the carbon fibers which are supposed to be produced by means of nanotechnology. The rope lower end must be connected with the anchor on the Earth equator. The upper end of the rope must have the counterbalance mass.
In order to tense the rope with the centrifugal force of the Earth rotation, the counterbalance must be on the height which is essentially more than 36,000 kilometers of the geostationary orbit. The space lift itself must move along the rope.
The useful load must be distributed along the geostationary orbit after reaching the height 36,000 kilometers. Then the lift will go down with the energy recuperation.
The correspondence of the space lift system to the celestial and theoretical mechanics may be its second serious problem. The lift behavior while moving needs to be strictly calculated. However, they only say yet above its possible instability.
The magnetic space vehicle is also the body of constant mass and possesses the energy recuperation. Its principal difference from the space lift may be cleared owing to Fig. 2.17. The magnetic aerospace vehicle leans on the planet body by means of the magnetic field (Fig. 2.17a). The space lift uses the direct mechanical contact through the rope similarly to Fig. 2.17b).
It is not difficult to see that the energetics of the magnetic vehicle is the same as of the space lift but without the rope and energy losses in the lift mechanism. The rope function is done by the natural magnetic field.
At the same time, the magnetic aerospace vehicle has its own serious problems which are reviewed in sections 6.1 and 6.2. What will be the first from these both competing projects to be realized, it depends on the technology progress and on the need.
The third prospective idea is considered in conclusion of this Section 6.5. It is so called orbital electric stations. They are supposed as the great Solar batteries which are located on different orbits around the Earth. The produced electric energy must be transmitted onto the Earth surface.
There would be destruction of the planetary energy balance. However, orbital electric stations are not yet in abundance.
The supposed method of the energy transmission from orbital electric stations is their main problem. The most popular idea is using the powerful microwave beam. Unfortunately, it has certain energy losses together with the damage to ecology.
The participation here of the magnetic aerospace vehicle would exclude these shortcomings by the way of transportation of the produced energy onto the Earth surface owing to the on-board energy store device. Such a usage should become once more stimulus to create and to apply this future technology. The digression № 3 is finished.
6.6. The Magnetic Space Vehicle out of the Magnetosphere
The Section 6.4 was ended with the thought that the comfortable dynamic overloading values for people on board of the magnetic aerospace vehicle are quite possible when the flight is within the planet magnetosphere. However, to accomplish the interplanetary or interstellar flight is difficult with keeping such a comfort.
The matter is that one of features of the natural magnetic fields is their very non-uniform space distribution which surpasses the non-uniformity of the gravity field. The intensity of the last one is usually inversely proportional to the 2nd degree of the distance whereas the magnetic field of a dipole is inversely proportional to the 3rd degree of the distance. Moreover, the force of the magnetic or electrodynamic interaction of two dipoles is inversely proportional to the 4th degree of a distance between them [35].
Inasmuch as the interplanetary magnetic field intensity is thousands times less than that of geomagnetic one, the magnetic space vehicle has to accomplish its interplanetary flight with accordance to the laws of celestial mechanics owing mainly to the inertia. The more the start speed is after leaving the planet magnetosphere, the less the interplanetary flight duration will be.
Fortunately, the interplanetary flight of the magnetic space vehicle represents not only a leap from one magnetosphere to another. There is the weak interplanetary magnetic field that belongs to the Solar Wind, that is, to Solar protons thrown out by the Sun at all directions with the speed about hundreds kilometers per second. This field has the spiral form. Its use for the magnetic propulsion was noted by J.F. Engelberger [9].
The super-current circulation in the main coil or loop of the magnetic propulsor does not demand the energy expenditure. The maximal value of this current allows to have the electrodynamic force which is relatively small because of the weakness of the external field of the solar wind but it can exert during all the flight period. This force demands the proportional small energy value.
So, there are two regimes: the start one and marching one. Both may be considered differently.
Let the start dynamic overloading is equal to 4 units (acceleration value is 40 meters per second in the 2nd degree). It is acceptable for the people possibility. 200 seconds are in need in order to reach the orbital speed about 8,000 meters per second. It is the problem of the school course of physics, section “Mechanics”. The covered distance will be 800 kilometers.
If the height of the atmosphere is 100-120 kilometers and the orbit height is 200-300 kilometers, then we have the typical situation in the modern rocketry without the entrance into the professional details.
Let the given start dynamic overloading is 2 units or acceleration value (20 meters per second in 2nd degree). The covered distance is taken 40,000 kilometers which is comparable approximately with the Earth magnetosphere height. This acceleration value is supposed to be the same along all this distance. A school pupil would again receive the final start speed value (at the moment of magnetosphere leaving) 40 kilometers per second and the start period duration 2,000 seconds or 33 minutes.
The start period duration of 2,000 seconds is ten times more than 200 seconds. 2 units of the dynamic overloading are twice less than 4 from the preceding example which is suitable for the magnetic propulsion.
One can see the certain similarity of both examples: the first one for the rocketry and the second one for the magnetic propulsion. We have in both cases the energetic and relatively short-time start in order to reach the initial speed value for the interplanetary flight.
The physical principle of the exerting force makes the magnetic propulsion to be more economic because of the efficiency of electricity and magnetism and of the constant mass of the magnetic vehicle. The last was noted by the J.F. Engelberger [9].
The duration of the marching regime, that is, properly of the flight, is far more than the start duration both in the rocketry and in the magnetic propulsion. The further flight after start is mainly owing to the inertia in both cases. However, the similarity ends here.
The trajectory correction in the rocketry represents the short-time work of the jet engine. On the contrary, the correction force in the magnetic propulsion is small but it can exert during all the flight with the proportionally small energy to be taken. It gives serious advantages.
First of all, the summary kinetic energy addition during all flight of the magnetic spacecraft is quite comparable, as calculations show [35], with the initial one after the start. This summary addition is so significant that even the flight direction and its aim may be changed after the start!
Secondly, the flight duration may be shortened. The speed would be constantly increased in the first part of flight and then would be constantly decreased in the second part with the energy recuperation.
Thirdly, the accuracy of the start direction and speed value, that is so important in the rocketry, is not in need for the magnetic propulsion in general. The continuous correction during the flight would change start data.
It is evident that the magnetic propulsion gives freedom which is not available in the rocketry. At the same time, the specific features appear. The duration of flight depends not only on the magnetosphere of the planet of start but also on the magnetosphere of the planet of arrival.
For example, the intensive field of the Jupiter magnetosphere allows to have the great speed of arrival for visiting its satellites system. Therefore, the flight duration would be essentially shortened.
On the contrary, the intensity of the magnetic field of the planet Mars is only about 20 times more than that of the Solar Wind weak field. Therefore, the flight speed to approach the Mars must be essentially decreased in order to decelerate successfully the space vehicle, using the weak field of this planet. The flight duration has to be increased.
The paradoxical result is that visiting the far planet with the powerful magnetosphere would demand the less flight duration than visiting the near planet with the weak magnetic field.
The arrival process is the same as of the start but in the inverse order, including the vertical slow landing on the surface of the celestial body.
Small celestial bodies, which are almost deprived of own magnetic field (satellites, asteroids, comets, etc.), would be visited by the magnetic vehicle too, using the electromagnetic action of curl currents in the ground (Section 7.4).
The interstellar flight by means of the magnetic propulsion differs only numerically because of the great demanded start speed value.
The most suitable magnetosphere for the interstellar start is the Jupiter’s one. Moreover, it may be possible to use several planets sequentially, for example, Jupiter and Saturn. It demands their favorable location correspondingly to the start direction. Several years of waiting this location are not essential in comparison with the flight duration of thousands of years. The start speed value depends on technology possibilities and on the safety but it scarcely is rational to be essentially more than the milli-light speed (Section 4.4).
The interstellar magnetic field intensity is ten and more times less than the interplanetary one but thousands of years of flight duration may result in the possibility of the effective speed correction.
It may be paradoxical that the movement through the gas and dust of “cosmic clouds” would be rational. The electrodynamic resistance will be relatively small (sections 7.2-7.3) but the magnetic field intensity there is hundred times more than out of them [19]. So, situation within the spiral arms of the Galaxy is better for the magnetic propulsion than in the space between them.
Magnetospheres of objects of arrival must be studied beforehand. The interstellar flight duration gives the enough time for it. The arrival is similar to the start but in the inverse consequence.
Inasmuch as the rocketry is problematic for interstellar flights (Section 4.4), then the magnetic interstellar spaceship becomes to be out of competition owing to its constant mass. Moreover, it has additional advantages which are reviewed in the next Chapter 7.
Chapter 7. “The Magnetic Fur Coat”
7.1. The Protection from Charged Particles
To have the maximal working field intensity during all flight is advantageous for the magnetic space vehicle because of the continuous correction of its speed and trajectory with the very small energy consumption. The constant super-current circulation needs no energy expenditure in general.
Therefore, the vehicle is continuously surrounded with the intensive constant magnetic field of its propulsor as if it is covered with the dense “fur coat”. This “fur coat” provides several useful side effects without any additional efforts, engineering equipment or new technological achievements. The short review of these side effects is made in this Chapter 7.
Charged particles represent one of components of cosmic radiation. The nearest source is our Sun. Its Solar Wind, which was mentioned above, represents the continuous flow of protons with speed about several hundred kilometers per second. The Solar Wind is especially energetic after Solar Flashes.
The Earth atmosphere thickness is not enough for the protection of the living world from the Solar Wind. The main role in this mission belongs to the geomagnetic field or to the Earth magnetosphere (Section 6.3).
When the orbit of the artificial satellite is relatively low, that is, about 200-300 kilometers above the Earth surface, all the atmosphere remains below and the protection from the Solar Wind passes from the atmosphere fully to the Earth magnetosphere. Its action on this height is a little less than on the Earth surface but the decrease of the radiation dose is about 1,000-10,000 times, depending on the inclination angle of the orbit plane relatively to the Earth rotation axis [52].
However, in order to protect the crew from the Solar Flashes radiation, the mass of the protective layer, for example, of aluminum, would be 1.5 tons per 10 square meters of the surface of the protected volume. If the protection were corresponding to the standard of the terrestrial nuclear arrangements, its mass value should be several hundred tons [52].
So, the first side effect considered here is the protection from protons of the Solar Wind owing to the great intensity of the magnetic field of spacecraft. As there is no calculation method to determine the protective quality of the vehicle magnetic field, therefore, indirect considerations have to be used.
The magnetosphere of the magnetic space vehicle is supposed to be about 10 million times less powerful and extensive than the Earth magnetosphere on the one hand. On the other hand the magnetic induction value on the surface of the magnetic vehicle would be near 10 million times more than on the Earth surface.
Consequently, as a result, the protection from protons of the Solar Wind owing to the vehicle magnetic field may be comparable with the geomagnetic field protection. Any additional mass is not in need for it.
At the same time, the magnetic field does not protect from neutral particles without charge and from ultra-violet and gamma rays, which are eliminated by the Sun surface. Other measures are in need.
Our planet surface is protected from the Sun ultra-violet radiation owing to the small percentage of the ozone in the Earth atmosphere.
7.2. The Action on Surrounding Gas
There are two states of the air gases which would flow along the aerospace magnetic vehicle surface: ions with their electric charge and electrically neutral atoms. The behavior of ions would be similar to those of protons which are ions too. It was considered in the previous Section 7.1.
The extensive upper layer of the Earth atmosphere is called ionosphere but it has only about 1 percent of ions. The rest 99 percent of ionosphere and 100 percent of the lower atmosphere represent electrically neutral atoms and molecules. They are neutral owing to the absolute equality of their electrical charges of both signs. They must be considered in the first place.
The Earth atmosphere consists of mainly two gases: 78 percent of nitrogen and 21 percent of oxygen, both approximately. The nitrogen relates to extensive group which is named diamagnetic. The oxygen relates to the less extensive group of paramagnetic.
The diamagnetic substance undergo the force of repulsion in the non-uniform magnetic field whereas paramagnetic one undergo the force of attraction. The first thought is to use this phenomenon for the atmosphere gases magnetic separation. It is made today by means of the deep cryogenic cooling with the great energy expenditure.
Unfortunately, the necessary value of the magnetic field intensity for the enough pressure difference, which has to be comparable with the atmospheric pressure, is not yet achieved in the modern technology even in laboratory. All the consideration will be here from the theoretical point of view.
In order to clarify the behavior of electrically neutral gas around the surface of the aerospace magnetic vehicle, it is necessary to study the magnetic properties of the atmosphere gases. It depends mainly on the state of electronic shells. Processes are known enough in order to come to certain conclusions.
The every electron “spin” and the atomic nucleus magnetism give the relatively small contribution into the magnetic property of the neutral atoms of gas and it would be neglected here. The consideration of the atomic electron shells is enough for our purpose.
When the magnetic aerospace vehicle is either in the motionless rest levitation or in the slow motion, its surface is covered with the air layer which is enriched with the attracted paramagnetic oxygen. Electrons of atomic shells, which move usually in all possible directions in general, acquire the prevailing rotation around the nucleus near the plane which is perpendicular to the external strong field direction.
Atoms of the gas become the magnetic dipoles with axes directed along the external field in the state of attraction as in Fig. 2.6. The external extensive field causes the certain acceleration of the orbital speed of electrons [38]. The process of these electrons acceleration was proved by the British physicist Sir Joseph Larmor in 1895 [38] earlier than the atom structure was discovered!
So, “the magnetic pumping” of energy from the vehicle intensive field would cause jumping of the electrons of the surrounding gas onto the upper level. The return back onto the former initial level must be accompanied by eliminating of the photon as the quantum of light.
This quantum process would not demand the serious energy loss of the magnetic vehicle. At the same time, it would cause the luminescence around the vehicle which would be seen at night but it is imperceptible in the day time.
It is possible that the drawn physical picture is inherent in the magnetic aerospace vehicle while the slow motion. However, such a picture would be quite opposite during the rapid motion.
The Russian physicist E.H. Lenz (1804-1865) discovered the Lenz Law. In accordance with it, the induced current from the changing magnetic field has always the direction opposite to the magnetic field change character. When the external field decreases, the induced current tends to support it. When the external field increases, the induced current provides the opposite field.
It is evident and undoubted that the electronic shells of atoms of the surrounding gas must become the dipoles with the opposite direction similarly to Fig. 2.7 and with the force of repulsion when the vehicle magnetic field flies upon them.
The speed of the magnetic field spread is equal to the speed of light. Therefore, inasmuch as the own speed of the vehicle is substantially less than the speed of light, the shockwave is improbable. It takes place in the usual aerodynamics when the aircraft speed is more than the sonic speed.
The vehicle magnetic field acts simultaneously upon all layers of the gas which is flowing oppositely along the vehicle surface. This flow is expected to be regulated distantly owing to the magnetic interaction and without both the direct contact and the pressure shock wave which acts in usual aerodynamics.
So, the process of gas flowing along the magnetic vehicle surface is expected to be of the laminar character and without the turbulence which causes so many troubles in the usual aerodynamics. Moreover, the absence of the direct pressure and the shock wave would exclude the noise. The magnetic aerospace vehicle flight would be noiseless.
Passing to the speeds of the interplanetary and interstellar flight, the physical mechanism of the gas atoms flow along the space vehicle surface would be the same. The quantitative estimations would only be another. The direct contact of atoms of gas will be also excluded owing to the third degree of increasing of the magnetic field intensity towards the vehicle surface. The erosion of its material has to be excluded.
All processes, which are considered here, may be calculated. At the same time, the only character of flowing along may promise the less air resistance than in the usual aerodynamics. It is the second side effect from the intensive own working magnetic field after the first one – the protection from solar protons.
The calculations for the cosmic dust [35] show the resistance reduction in several ten times relatively to the direct contact (Section 7.3). Probably, the analogous situation could be also with the gas because of the same Lenz Law action.
7.3. The Protection from the Cosmic Dust
Words “cosmic dust” means here not only dust particles but also all solid material which is dispersed within the gas of the cosmic space, that is, conglomerations of the sand size and even small meteor bodies. They are several units of the mass percentage of all cosmic dust.
The total mass of the listed solid material forms 1-2 percent of the cosmic gas mass (mainly hydrogen and helium). In spite of such a small percentage, the danger of this component is substantial, especially during the long-time interstellar flight. It was considered in the Section 4.3.
The more is the size of the solid particle, the less is the corresponding amount and the probability of the collision with it. However, this probability is never equal to zero. Existing projects rely upon the small probability of shock and they ignore the erosion from dust.
“The magnetic fur coat” provides the protection from the dust, from the particles of sand size and from meteor bodies. This third side effect does not demand any additional measures, efforts, and equipment. The physical mechanism is as follows.
All solid substances contain the certain amount of free electrons which are not connected strongly with atoms. These electrons may be organized under the action of some external magnetic field as the curl currents or Foucault currents.
The phenomenon was discovered by the French physicist J.B.L. Foucault (1819-1868) in the simple experiment. The metallic pendulum expected deceleration between the poles of the permanent magnet. The field of this magnet induces in the metal of pendulum curl currents with accordance to the Lenz Law: their field direction coincides with decreasing external one but it is opposite to external one while its increasing. The resistive electrodynamic force is present in both cases.
The amount of free electrons is very different in solid substances. This amount in cosmic solid particles is less than in metals. However, their contribution into the Lenz Law action is much than that of electronic shells of atoms that was the main one in gas (previous Section 7.2).
The electric conductivity of the cosmic dust and bodies is worse than that of metals but it is compensated with the intensity of the working field of the magnetic space vehicle and especially with the great relative speed of the approach.
“The relative speed” means that it is not essential: the particle is flying upon the vehicle or the vehicle is flying upon the particle. The relative speed value and direction are only essential. According to the Lenz Law, the Foucault currents in the particle provide the magnetic (electrodynamic) force of repulsion.
In accordance with the 3rd Newton’s Law, the equal and opposite forces are exerting onto the solid particle and the space vehicle during approach. They are electrodynamic forces without the direct mechanical contact but distant and owing to the magnetic field mediation.
Please, imagine now that this force of repulsion consists of two components: longitudinal one relatively to the flight direction (axial one) and lateral one to the flight direction (radial one). The relative speed of the particle may be evidently imagined also to be of two analogous components. The consideration of longitudinal and lateral interactions separately leads to the interesting result.
Calculations show that the longitudinal (axial) component of the repulsion force provides the small deceleration effect. For example, if the speed of the relative approach is 300 kilometers per second, then the relative decrease of it caused by the repulsion force would be only 2.4 percent [35].
The direct mechanical collision would mean that the speed loss should be 100 percent. Dividing 100 on 2.4 gives approximately 42. Consequently, the force of electrodynamic resistance to the flight from the solid particles would be about 40 times less than in the case of the direct mechanical collision like in the usual aerodynamics.
Inasmuch as the Lenz Law acts analogously in the case of a gas, it is possible to suppose that “the magnetic fur coat” should provide the electrodynamic resistance of the air to be also of tens times less than the usual aerodynamic resistance that was concerned in the previous Section 7.2.
The lateral (radial) component of the repulsive electrodynamic force, which acts on the solid particle, is substantially more than axial one. It gives to the particle the great acceleration and speed in the lateral (radial) direction which is enough to repel it out of the frontal projection (middle) of the space vehicle during approach without a collision [35].
“The magnetic ricochet” is suitable name for this effect.
The sum of plural lateral components of shocks from all directions is zero. All of them are mutually balanced because of statistics of the plurality of different particles namely of the dust, not to mention about gas atoms (very plural relatively to dust particles). However, the more the size of particle is, the less probability of the balance is up to some shock.
When such a situation occurs, for example, the meteor body is repelled from the vehicle magnetic field, the force of collision is accepted by all vehicle body owing to the own magnetic field mediation and without the direct mechanical contact. Therefore, the erosion and injury are excluded.
This damage is ignored in all existing projects. But the way through dusted cosmic roads is opened for the magnetic space vehicle.
The curl currents cause not only “the magnetic ricochet” but they also may cause heating of the material of particle especially in the case of great value of the speed. This heating may result in melting and even evaporation of the particle [35].
When the particle is split into several fragments, the same process would be evidently with everyone.
“The magnetic fur coat” provides the full protection from the damage of meteor bodies and the dust erosion during the unlimited time. It is especially important for interstellar flights. These flights would be possible, strictly speaking, only under the condition of this protection in general.
7.4. The Interaction with Ground and Water
All substances are conductors of electric current in the much or less degree. The process is provided by the electrons of conductivity or free electrons which were mentioned in the previous Section 7.3.
When the body with the intensive own magnetic field moves near or within the substance, the Foucault currents are induced in it. According to the Lenz Law, the electrodynamic force of this interaction always causes the resistance to the movement.
The process is theoretically similar to the space vehicle movement through the cosmic dust because of the role of electrons of conductivity (Section 7.3). The difference is that the mass quantity of dust around the vehicle is far less than the vehicle mass.
On the contrary, the mass of the ground or water, near which the vehicle moves, is usually far more than the vehicle own mass. So, the numerical calculation has to be built differently [35].
Such a difference in the choice of methods should not disturb us because our aim is to approach the problem solution in the shortest and simplest way for the estimation of processes and actions: as the hindrance or the help. We shall find here one and another.
The side effect of the vehicle working magnetic field during its movement above the ground and water surface or under the water surface is the train of curl currents. These currents cause the effect of the electrodynamic resistance and they heat the ground or water. The result is the energy loss.
Therefore, the movement of the aerospace magnetic vehicle near the ground and water or through the water is rational with the minimal speed [35]. Then the energy loss would be minimal too.
It is better to avoid the horizontal flight at a small height. The magnetic vehicle descent on the ground or water surface and the ascent are rational vertically with a small speed or slowly. The energy losses would be then minimal.
However, the Foucault currents in ground and water during the magnetic vehicle movement are not only the negative effect but also the positive one. The descent deceleration helps to make the soft landing. The propulsor working current value for descent and ascent may be far less than for the motionless magnetic levitation at the same height [35].
Moreover, when the celestial body has no own magnetic field in general, then the curl currents are the only means for the magnetic space vehicle to provide the lift force, to have both soft landing and the controlled ascent.
So, the absence of the own magnetic field of many celestial bodies, such as asteroids, planet satellites, including the Moon, comets, etc, presents no hindrance for the magnetic space vehicle to visit them.
The final dot is put after the range of objects which may be visited by the magnetic space vehicle. There is no objects in general which would exclude the possibility for this vehicle to land and then to leave them.
7.5. Galvanic-magnetic Effects
The side effects from the intensive working field of the magnetic vehicle may be estimated as positive ones (sections 7.1-7.3) or both positive and negative ones (Section 7.4). We pass now to the quite negative galvanic-magnetic effects in the equipment and in the living organism.
The intensive magnetic field necessary for the magnetic propulsion causes galvanic-magnetic effects in the surrounding substance and bodies. The number of such known effects may surpass 200. We consider only three ones which are in need in Part Four, Chapter 11.
The first is the Hall Effect. The external magnetic field moves the free electrons of conductivity to one side of conductor. It is equivalent to decreasing of the cross section of a conductor for the electric current. The electric circuit responds to this influence as increasing of the electric resistance.
For example, let the electric circuit consists of the galvanic source, of the filament lamp, and of connecting wires. The electric resistance of this small circuit is concentrated mainly in the filament of lamp. The magnetic field with the induction 2-20 Tesla may increase the electric resistance of the lamp filament at 3,000 Kelvin degrees in several times because of the Hall Effect [35]. The filament lamp in this example may become dim or even dark during the magnetic field action.
The Hall Effect may be also in the base of destroying of the nervous system work in living organism. Long nerves undergo this influence in the more degree than short ones. Therefore, when the magnetic field increases, the temporary paralysis of legs and arms should become at first whereas the vision, hearing, and consciousness may be still acting.
The electric arc or spark is the process of the electric current flow through the ionized gas. It is the partial case of the electric conductor. Physics of electricity and magnetism works here too.
The external magnetic field creates the lateral electrodynamic pressure onto the electric arc or spark. This field makes them to be curved and longer. The resistance increases and the arc or spark goes out in the end. The process is sometimes called “the magnetic blowing out”.
The induction of the external magnetic field of 0.01-0.1 Tesla would destroy the spark ignition in the carburetor engine of motor car [35]. At the same time, the diesel engine and engines of the permanent combustion, such as the jet engine and turbo-engine, would not evidently undergo this influence after starting up.
The own electronic superconductive systems of the magnetic space vehicle occur literally in the epicenter of the magnetic field. How would they work? Variants are possible.
Electronic systems may be protected with the superconductive screens. These systems may be located also in places where the penetration of the own magnetic field is excluded, that is, in the so-called forceless configurations, and so on.
Conclusion to the Part Two
The magnetic propulsion corresponds to all positive qualities which were listed in the British Project GREENGLOW and to all desires of “The Steering Group” of the NASA Lewis Research Center at Cleveland, Ohio, [Section 4.5] without exceptions.
The energy of magnetic fields in the Universe occupies the second place after the energy of galaxies rotation and third one if “the dark energy” should be confirmed. So, the magnetic propulsion uses the greatest force permitting control in the Universe.
At the same time, it is based on totally using only quantum effects that brings its efficiency to be nearest to the ideal transport facility.
The ability to the unlimited duration of existence in the cosmic space and the possession of almost all kinds of protection may be characterized by the proverb “as a fish in water”.
The universality of the magnetic aerospace vehicle allows to carry out all kinds of mission: lifting, landing; atmosphere, orbital, interplanetary, interstellar flights as one unit without some additional equipment for different cases and owing to its constant mass. It gives advantages.
The magnetic propulsion promises to be an alternative one and the competitor with the rocketry and aviation in the prospect. Several general engineering problems are in need to be solved and then all our civilization would be changed radically.
On the one hand, all principles of the magnetic propulsion are based on established physical laws. The aim is quite real and with no fantasy. The terms are only unknown. On the other hand, the system, which is not ready to the immediate application, allows us to discuss it freely without the pressure from the side of corporations, governments and the military.
Inasmuch as the rocketry is not suitable for the interstellar flight, the magnetic spaceship may be theoretically out of competition. For today it may be in general the only rational prospective transport facility for interstellar spaciousness overcoming.
The usefulness of great mechanical over-loadings in the magnetic propulsion hinders to receive its advantages fully when living beings are on board (people or aliens). Inasmuch as they cannot exist for a long time in the interstellar space, the only suitable passenger in this case may be the cybernetic “non-living” intelligence. The last one is free from considered shortcomings of living creatures and it is just able to go along great Galaxy distances.
Part Three
“Non-living” Intelligence
Chapter 8. Features of Artificial Intellect
8.1. The Similarity to the Human Mind
The doctrine about the artificial intellect is not yet scientifically formed. Subjective points of view, technological and engineering achievements, serious actions, and the pure fantasy are getting entangled. However, the topic about the artificial intelligence must be continued from the end of Chapter 1 in order to understand and to estimate its possibility to exist in the cosmic space (Chapter 9).
Besides, the great interest for our theme is the comparison of the both kinds of intelligence: natural biological human one and artificial electronic cybernetic one. The competitive ability of each has to be clarified.
The word “artificial” means the creation of the subject by somebody, by humans in this case. Such a subject is not “living” in the biological sense according to seven items in Section 2.2. To create living is still impossible.
What intelligence is from the philosophical point of view was said in Section 1.1. We know only one kind of mind: own human. Therefore, it is not astonishing that the nearest variant of the artificial mind is considered to be analogous to the human one [3]:
“The following main programs characterize the human brain as the informative system.
The perception of the external information. This program reproduction for the artificial mind provides tuning up analyzers for the perception of the certain information and for the images recognition, the temporary storage, and the preliminary processing of the received information.
The emotional estimation of information. The presence of the analogous program in the artificial mind allows the system to work out its own criteria of estimation in order to organize the purposeful behavior in a complex environment.
The actions organization. These actions are directed onto the system allocation in the external medium or onto the change of the medium itself.
The speech program provides the possibility of coding of complex meanings and phenomena which are not defined strictly. It also allows to work out the new meanings and so on. This program is also necessary for the organization of the interaction with human or with different systems of the artificial intellect.
The program of consciousness in which several levels are regarded: a) the attention or the choice of the most important information at the moment; b) the definition of the space and time mutual relations of objects, the possibility to predict their behavior; c) conceptions about the own ego and non-ego; d) the will or the ability to concentrate the attention; e) the imagination and the ability to differ the real from unreal.
The reproduction of this program in the artificial mind provides the definition of the space, time, and cause-consecutive relations of the system with the external world. The consciousness level is characterized by the degree of the complexity of relations which the system is able to reflect.
The creative work is the creation of the new information”. (The end of citation)
So, the modern technology allows us to make the artificial intelligence as a copy of human one. Is it logical? The human intellect arose as means for survival. It has, at the same time, the essential animal component, including sexual one.
Nobody knows to what degree the artificial intellect must copy the human one. The base is the digital technology that demands to represent images of the surrounding world, shapes, size, color, smell, and so on as combinations of numbers.
Probably, it would be of no less difficulty for the electronic mind than the mathematical education for human. The scientific branch would appear which helps to the digital mind to understand images and meanings. ”The formula of love” should be in need really!
On the other hand, the thought process of the cybernetic mind may not be linear, that is, it need not only passing from one cause to one consequence (Section 1.5). Several causes and several consequences would be considered simultaneously at every step with their different importance. The program may be widely ramified at every step.
The level of consciousness of the perfect cybernetic intellect is difficult to imagine, especially its conception about the own ego. This property of people is scarcely “a sacred cow” accessible to us only. To survive in severe conditions of cosmic space without such quality seems to be unreal.
The emotional estimation of information would scarcely copy the human one. To imagine emotions of the cybernetic mind is difficult.
Concerning the exterior of the cybernetic “non-living” person, “robot” similar to a human is not always rational for the certain task fulfillment or for the successful existence in specific conditions. The exterior could be of any desired or advantageous form, including simple geometry figures. It is not the inevitable product of a biological evolution.
It is absolutely evident that the creator of the artificial intellect on the Earth is the mind of the living being, of a man. The biological intellect is the obligatory intermediate link on the way of the artificial cybernetic one arising although the probability of this event is not 100 percent in general but it is very probable, proceeding from our experience.
It is important that the bearer of the artificial cybernetic mind is not the living biological organism with its necessity of air, water, food, sanitation, etc. Its ability for spreading in space is superior over the human one.
At the same time, there is no conflict with the Gödel Theorem (Section 1.2) because the more complex structure (the human brain) creates the less complex structure (the microprocessor). The last one may be superior only owing to the memory capacity and the speed of the thought process. It is once more paradox.
It is also evident that “the software” together with the memory forms the soul of the cybernetic person. This “soul” can be really flying in space, being transmitted by means, for example, of radio-waves!
Whether the humanity has own Creator and whether a man possesses his own soul, which is able to fly in space, is debated up today.
The paradoxical situation is that the human, whose mind is limited evolutionarily because of the Mayr Law (Section 1.4), is the creator of the cybernetic electronic mind which has no this limitation. It has only physical limitations, such as the molecular structure of substance (for the memory) and the electron orbital speed (for the thought process rapidity).
Obviously, the cybernetic “non-living” mind may surpass the human one already in the middle of the current 21st century, according to modern forecasts.
What its advantage may be after several centuries and even thousands of years, nobody can foresee. Besides, the humanity cannot pretend to be the first and the only one intelligence in our Milky Way Galaxy now. The artificial one, which was produced by more old former civilizations of aliens, could exist.
The difference between the living natural intelligence and “the non-living” artificial one may be essentially deeper than in the short described scheme. It is also evident that the mutual understanding between the natural human mind and the cybernetic electronic one, especially of an alien origin, would occur to be not easy.
The topic of the cybernetic electronic “non-living” intelligence is very extensive. The selected small information for our theme is shortly systematized in the following sections of Chapter 8 where the basic components of the mind of the living being are compared with those hypothetical of the artificial one.
8.2. The Information Perception
The vision is the main provider of information for living beings. The human brain receives approximately 90 percent of information about the surrounding world owing to his vision.
Eyes are considered to be a brain part which is moved out onto the periphery. Strictly speaking, it has the sense only for the eye retina which consists of plural receptors of the light. All of rest parts of an eye are analogous to a photo-camera, that is, they are pure optics.
Eyes of all vertebrates are of the same structure and they have the same disadvantage. The nervous fibers from receptors of light are arranged over the retina and the light passes through them. There is the place on the retina where the wisp of nervous fibers passes through it. This place is named “the blind spot”. The eye does not see with this place of the retina.
It is interesting that cephalopoda, that is, the cuttlefish, the squid, the octopus, have also camera eyes with the analogous nervous fibers under the retina that is more rational. They have no a blind spot. However, they cannot use this advantage fully because they are deprived of big brain for processing the visual information and understanding it.
Other kind of vision of living beings represents facet compound eyes of Insects and Crustaceans. Their eye consists of plural microscopic facet pipes with the receptor of the light on the bottom.
Every receptor of the camera eye or facet compound eye receives the light from corresponding point or from small piece of the observed 3-dimensional scene. The resulting picture is flat as a photograph. The information about the 3-dimensional arrangement of objects is kept only because eyes are pair organ with their direction forward and when the distance is relatively short.
When the distance is great, then the brain uses its knowledge about the real size of the object and it estimates the distance owing to the observed size. If the remote object is unknown, both its size and the distance are impossible to be defined jointly.
The light is the electro-magnetic wave. Both camera eyes and facet compound eyes get information about the oscillation amplitude (brightness) and about the wavelength (color). The facet compound eyes see also the near ultra-violet. The information about the phase of the wave in every moment of time and about the character of polarization is lost.
Both described variants of vision are suitable for the artificial intelligence. Moreover, its resolving ability is not worse already today than the human one. “The machine vision” is perfected quickly. “Machine” or “robot” can have not only the color vision in the optical spectrum but also far over its bounds. As a minimum, it is realized in the infra-red region (night vision devices and thermal imagers) or in the ultra-violet one (medical equipment and flaw detectors).
The machine vision is possible theoretically in any electromagnetic irradiations, for example, in microwaves (radar). Various types of scanning are possible. An artificial device can “see” not only in electromagnetic oscillations, but also in mechanical ones (equipment for the ultrasound examinations in medicine). It’s clear that the machine vision would far surpass the human one in all aspects and theoretical limitations are only size of the molecules and the speed of light.
All the volume of the visual (in the wide sense) information is available for perception, storage and processing by microprocessor technology. However, a large memory resource is in need. A computer needs 100-1,000 times more time for displaying a color halftone image, for example, a photograph, than to compare variations of a 150-200-page single-color text with the detection of differences in one letter or comma, as well as recording this text.
The text represents a recorded result of the process of human thinking during the substantial time period. The time of computer operation with it is very small relatively to the time spent by a person for this text creation and correction. Dear reader, be thoughtful.
The extensive branch of the vision theory is shortly touched here in order to show the contrast of one important kind, which is absent in the living nature, but it can be inherent only in the artificial cybernetic intelligence. It is the distributive or holographic vision.
This kind of vision was discovered as the holography. The 3-dimensional scene was registered by means of the laser light on the photo-plates with high resolving. The image registration does not demand any optics. In spite of this, all objects at all distances are visible equally neatly with the simultaneous distance definition. The information can be registered not only about the brightness and color but also about the phase of the wave and polarization.
Every point of the 3-dimensional scene is registered in holography by all surface of the photo-plate or by the plurality of receptors. Every point of the photo-plate or every receptor registers the light from all points of the scene.
This principle may be spread onto the extended surface of receptor matrix which provides the vision similarly to the real-time computer-read color holography.
It is said “color” but more wide range of frequencies may evidently be used than the spectrum achievable by the human vision on the one hand. On the other hand, the necessary memory volume and the processing speed for the distributive vision may be so great that it is not astonishing why the living nature did not “produce” the similar vision. Possibly, it is accessible only for the cybernetic mind.
The artificial cybernetic person may have not only the vision of the field of light but also it may possess the visualization of fields of other nature, that is, the field representation similar to visible picture.
There are several species of fish which possess probably the visualization of the electric field. Dolphins and other Cetaceans may have the visualization of the sound field. It is considered that short sound or ultra-sound impulses produced by them are reflected from objects in water and are focused in the brain due to the convex shape of the forehead similar to the crystalline lens of eye. The big size of their brain would be consequence of joined processing the visual and ultra-sound information about three-dimensional location of surrounding objects.
Hearing provides to the human brain only several percent of all the information. The sound field is observed from the only point, that is, from an ear. In spite of the information theoretical pureness, the world of music exists…
Organs of smell and taste with chemical receptors provide some subjective perception. The sense of touch depends on the skin sensitivity and limbs position. There is no problem to equip or to fit out an artificial structure with correspondent sensors.
It is said sometimes about some sixth sense: discomfort when the atmosphere is agitated, a misfortune presentiment, the anxiety about a very dear person, and so on – something indefinite.
People have no sensitive organs for perception of magnetic and other fields, also of the radioactive radiation that sometimes is very tragic. An artificial structure (subject or person) may be imparted with sixth, seventh, eighth, etc., sense for perception and also visualization of whatever is liked. Nothing hinders artificial cybernetic intellect to be superior over people mind in any kind of perception and also from surpassing people not only in any kind of perception but also in the aggregate of several ones.
8.3. The Memory and Processing Speed
The memory is the main base of the thought process. The average capacity of the memory value of an individual man is estimated as 105 or 100,000 gigabytes (100 terabytes) [55]. The recent estimation is 74 terabytes [118]. The main bearing element of memory in a human brain is the nervous cell called the neuron (Section 1.2).
The thought process is considered to act in the cortex of human brain. If the cortex occupies 44 percent of the brain with the average volume 1400 cubic centimeters, then 162 gigabytes from all 105 would be approximately contained in every cubic centimeter of the cortex.
The modern digital technology reached almost the same value of the memory “packing density”. However, this value is very far from the molecular level. Experimental specimens of the last one were built.
However, the molecular structures in the digital technology are not stable enough [4]. But the last word is not said. Besides, the living world demonstrates the amazing stability of the complex molecular structures as DNA great molecules. They are stable during all life of living being and even thousands of years after death (Section 1.1).
The reserve for progress is great whereas the human memory capacity is limited evolutionary as E.Mayr explained (Section 1.4). The absence of biological evolutionary limitations gives to the cybernetic electronic intelligence superior abilities in the prospect.
So, the cybernetic electronic memory has to surpass the human one in the future. Every neuron of the human brain consists of several millions of molecules. “The packing density” is hundreds times less than on the molecular level base.
The appearance of the written language resulted in the humanity collective memory. It was stored in millions of books. Their role passes today to the internet. The ability of the digital technology allows soon to put up all the collective knowledge of humanity into the device with the size of a mobile phone.
The speed of the electro-chemical signal passing along the nervous fibers is to several hundred meters per second. It defines the work of brain and of all organs. On the contrary, the speed of electric impulses along a conductor is limited only with the speed of light. Such surpassing in millions times is one more advantage of the electronic intellect that leads to serious consequences.
8.4. The Efficiency and Longevity
It was told in Section 1.4 that the human brain is limited evolutionarily. Moreover, the speed of signal passing may be to several hundred meters per second. At the same time, the living brain takes approximately 25 percent of all the energy which is consumed by the organism with food.
The modern digital semi-conductor technology demands the essential energy consumption too. The microprocessor needs special cooling in order to dissipate its consumed energy. It is evident that the serious growth of the electronic brain capacity meets the energy problem.
The reasonable solution of this problem may be using of the quantum effect, that is, the superconductivity. All functional elements of the semi-conductor electronics, which is the today’s base of the computer technology, have their analogs in the superconductivity.
The speed of electric signal passing may reach the speed of light. The electronic brain capacity has no evolutionary limitation but only physical one because of the molecular structure of substance.
At the same time, the energy consumption in superconductivity is theoretically zero. Nobody knows what electric power amount would be needed for the extensive superconducting brain.
The classical cryogenic superconductivity exists at several unit degrees above the absolute temperature zero. All processes of the atomic and molecular diffusion at this temperature are so slow that nobody knows the time period which is demanded for experimental clarifying the longevity of these systems.
It might be seen that the electronic brain could surpass the human one in every respect. It would be possibly better and more comfortable bearer for mind than the living organism that was mentioned in Section 1.3. Moreover, the cosmic space with its almost vacuum and the temperature near the absolute zero seems to be the advantageous medium for the superconductivity.
If the quantum phenomenon of the superconductivity is the base of the cybernetic electronic mind, then the last one would be the most suitable candidate for overcoming the interstellar spaciousness.
8.5. Opinions and Summing-up
So, two kinds of intelligence, which are able to build civilization, are known but are different in their origin, character, and possibilities.
Biological one (humans, aliens) is the very rare game of nature and it is limited evolutionarily. It is localized within the small region of space, that is, on the surface of the planet which is suitable for life and evolution. Their exit up and down from this surface is connected with difficulties. At the same time, the creation of “non-living” cybernetic intelligence by biological one would represent its main cosmological role.
The cybernetic intelligence is the product of biological one on the certain stage of progress with the enough degree of probability. Its proposed longevity allows to prolong inherited civilization after biological creators existence. Its superior possibilities provide the full freedom to exist in the cosmic space in a very long time with the ability to overcome interstellar distances.
Potential prevailing of the cybernetic intelligence over human one was suspected by scientists half a century ago. True, the energy gluttony was regarded as paramount importance that turned out to be debatable (Section 3.5). We return to the Burakan Conference. J.S. Shklovsky (Fig. 3.1) said (my translation from Russian):
Fig. 3.1. The soviet astronomer and astrophysicist J.S. Shklovsky (1916-1985), the member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR from 1966. The photograph from the posthumous 6th edition of his Universe, Life, Intelligence, 1986 [46].
“I want to emphasize that the evolution of developed cybernetic civilizations may be characterized as the logical non-biological development of the known to us progressive intelligent life. It is possible that the civilization, as we understand it, represents the simplest intermediate stage on the way to the rather developed civilization and, moreover, the intermediate and unstable stage” [50].
The opinion of other participants of this Conference was analogous.
“In any case, there are no foundations to join life and intelligence with only habitual for us natural biological forms of the matter. The artificial self-producing and self-perfecting cybernetic devices, which are able to self-teaching, can also live and think even fuller, deeper and far over limits of biological possibilities of natural organisms” (G.M. Idlis) [50].
The cybernetic intelligence in the cosmic space was characterized by the Burakan Conference as “the new factor of fundamental importance”. In what sense is it “new”? The news is that we begin to understand it. But the factor itself may not be new, moreover, it may be very old.
It is in need to clear in what manner the cybernetic cosmic civilization arises owing to “parental” biological one, how typical this process would be in details. We have again only one specimen for the consideration, that is, our own human civilization. Its future may be analogous to other possible civilizations of the past in the engineering direction of far space researches.
The next Chapter 9 proposes the attempt to forecast, what the process of the intelligence physical penetration in space would be. This process begins already today.
Chapter 9. Inhabitants of Interstellar Spaciousness
9.1. To Foresee the Future
It was told in Chapter 2 that distances between stars with their planets are tens of thousands times more than interplanetary distances. To overcome interstellar distances with the reasonable speed value (Section 4.4) may need thousands of years. It means the necessity to exist in space constantly or almost all the time.
Inasmuch as living beings, that is, humans or aliens are not able to such an existence (Section 4.4), then the only possible candidate would be the cybernetic intelligent subject. Moreover, the cosmic space conditions would be quite comfortable for him (Section 8.4).
It may be said that the process begins. Space vehicles “Pioneer” and “Voyager” left the bound of the Solar System, if to consider this bound as the orbit of the planet Neptune. The information from them continues to enter up today. It is difficult even to imagine the personal presence of a human in this mission.
The next generation of “intelligent researchers” is debated. In order to peep in more far future and to dream about things, which would be known for our descendants only, the futurology is usually used.
It is advantageous to prolong or to extrapolate onto the future the newest and the most promising tendencies of the modern progress. There may be theoretically founded properties of materials, prospective technologies, grounded concepts, etc. The topic will be developed in the next Section 9.2.
Several successful engineering forecasts are usually mentioned. “Nautilus” by Jules Verne corresponds to the modern submarine with the nuclear reactor. “Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin” by Alexei Tolstoy is analogous to the powerful laser with the chemical pumping.
J.S. Shklowsky also presents himself as a forecaster. The 3rd edition (1973) of his book “Universe, Life, Intelligence” contains on page 203 the table of scientific forecasts till 2100. “The world library” may be seen there. It is evidently the internet. And the term is noted almost rightly: 2000.
But the most important for our theme is the forecast by Jonathan Swift in the first volume (1726) of his “Travels into Several Remote Nations…” The circle island “Laputa” was flying in the air by means of… what would you think? By means of the magnetic propulsion in the geomagnetic field! Its engine was the big magnet which was controlled by cunning Laputians.
Successful forecasts are amazing. However, unsuccessful ones are of the certain interest too from the point of view how the probability of mistake would be reduced owing to the logical analysis in details, owing to physics, mathematics and data of other sciences. Mistaken forecasts are instructive.
In order to reach the Moon surface, Jules Verne lodged passengers into the big cannon missile. It was evident that the mechanical overloading at the shot moment would kill them. At the same time, the rocketry was then already known owing to Syrano de Bergerac who was the compatriot of Jules Verne. Rockets were widely known from time immemorial.
We did not become eye-witnesses of “the travel to the Earth center” in 2010 which had been foretold by J.S. Shklovsky in the same table of his forecasts of 1973. He might already know about the ocean of the liquid iron with its depth over 1,000 kilometers (the Earth external nucleus, Section 2.3 and Fig. 1.17). To overcome the depth of 11 kilometers of the Earth water ocean was the great engineering achievement but it was not 1,000 km of the liquid iron.
Jonathan Swift described the device for excellent thoughts generation: hundreds of cubic blocks with letters strung together on axes which were rotated by monkeys. Stopping after command, and scientists of the Laputa read the result. However, only four letters could be on every cubic block from 26 in the alphabet. It represented a reduction of the necessary letters quantity in 6.5 times. Disks or polyhedrons were in need instead of cubic blocks. We should never know either it was the mathematical mistake or it was the purposeful part of the author’s irony.
So, to reduce the probability of mistake in a scientific forecast is quite possible. We ought to base our constructions only on verified laws and rules, to extrapolate onto the future only the newest tendencies, to use generally accepted new theories, and to follow to the strict logic.
In order to imagine the existence and action of cybernetic intelligent researchers in cosmic space in the far future, a few possessions will be done and indicated in the text with the fatty type.
9.2. Materials, Technologies, Energy
We do not know yet whether “the dark matter” can work as a material for the engineering production to make useful things. Therefore, the hydrogen may be still considered as the most widespread material of the Universe. This important and amazing material is present everywhere, including the interstellar space (one atom per cubic centimeter approximately [65]).
Hydrogen is the main source of the energy for stars which warms planets, illuminates the Universe, and produces all other elements. Joining with the oxygen, third prevailing element of the Universe, hydrogen constitutes water, the most widespread chemical compound which is also the base of life. Moreover, hydrogen together with oxygen, carbon and nitrogen is the material for all living building.
It is amazing that hydrogen also may be considered as the main material for building non-biological “non-living” cybernetic constructions too.
Hydrogen represents the simplest substance because the nucleus of its atom usually consists of one proton. It is the cause that it is the lightest and simplest chemical element and in addition at № 1 in the Mendeleev’s Table. The number is quite deserved. Besides, it is located there in two places simultaneously: in the 7th column of the Table with gases that is not astonishing; but it stands also in the 1st column with metals (owing to its chemical properties in both cases).
It is amazing that the second essence of hydrogen is to be metal. Nobody saw or held in hands this metal. It is foretold by theorists. They consider that hydrogen may be transformed into the metallic state under the great pressure about several millions atmospheres. The metallic hydrogen is supposed to be slightly denser than water and to be the notorious warm superconductor at temperature to +200 Celsius grades! What overturn would occur if this material would be created! Therefore, great efforts and expenditures were done in order to obtain this metal.
The intensive magnetic field of Jupiter and Saturn is just supposed to be owing to the liquid metallic hydrogen under the great pressure in their bowels (Fig. 1.16).
However, the metallic hydrogen is in need under the usual small pressure. Fortunately, theorists left the hope for us. In accordance with calculations, in particular, by the Russian physicist V.L. Guinsburg (Nobel Prize 2004), the metallic hydrogen may remain after ceasing the great pressure, taking down in the meta-stable state under the usual small pressure [17].
The well known example of such a state is the diamond. It is the modification of the carbon which was crystallized under the great pressure in the Earth bowels. It remains in the meta-stable state under the small pressure of our usual conditions.
Strictly speaking, the meta-stable phase of the metallic hydrogen is not obligatory. Forceless configurations of coils exist, in which the distributed electrodynamic internal forces are perceived as the volume compression. The long-term one would be kept in such a manner in order to hold the metallic hydrogen in its stable state continuously without meta-stable one.
Fig. 3.2. Schematic drawing of the hydraulic press “170” which was made in Kramatorsk, Ukraine [85].
Digression № 4 follows. The schematic picture in Fig. 3.2 illustrates the construction of the hydraulic press for the record force value of 75,000 tons.
Being a student, the author of this book saw in 1957 the process of joining by means of the electric arc welding of 3 parts of one of 48 vertical plates of 30 meters length (Fig. 3.2). The small automat was swallowing the wire from the big coil and it was running forward and backward inside of the interval between two parts of one of these 48 vertical plates, being established horizontally and placed edgewise. Ends of these parts were red and hot. Nobody was around! It was contiguous with fantasy.
One of these presses was bought by the France. The main application of such a gigantic pressure was to produce details of super-sonic flight vehicles. The second application would be experiments with materials produced under the great pressure, including the metallic hydrogen. They attempted to make it by the way of pressing of the cooled solid hydrogen in diamond vice. The end of digression № 4.
Nothing is still heard about the achievement to make the metallic hydrogen, using big presses. However, the information appeared in the USA about the observation of the zero electric resistance of the solid hydrogen at the moment of the shock pressure during the explosion.
It is supposed here that the metallic hydrogen in the meta-stable phase would be made. It is meant as the main constructive material of cybernetic researchers in the far space. Other materials are in need in relatively small quantities that is achievable owing to the cosmic dust presence.
The second extrapolation onto the activity of far space researchers is the total application of nanotechnologies. It is evident that modern engineering problems would have then other character and solution. In particular, the mono-crystals without dislocations, that is, without included atoms of other elements, would be several tens of times firmer than modern analogous materials.
It is supposed that mono-crystals and molecules are built in nanotechnologies owing to manipulations with separate atoms. Living organisms build plural complex molecules of the constant identical structure. For example, the molecules of the hemoglobin of blood contain two atoms of iron always at the same location and distance from each other. A propos, these iron atoms give the red color to the blood. However, nobody called the hemoglobin creation as “nanotechnology”.
Crystals and molecules building is supposed in nanotechnology mainly without water participation although the water presents in cosmic space too. Concerning the selection of atoms in space from the dissipated substance, we shall consider that nanotechnologies can do the same as the selection of needed atoms from water by bacteria that resulted in minerals and metal ores.
The main source of energy in the cosmic space may be not only the hydrogen but also the helium may be suitable to be the energy source and it is only 2.7 times less in the total amount than the hydrogen. Its isotope “helium-3” is especially tempting because of its “pure thermonuclear reaction” as theorists think.
The energy of stars radiation may also be used analogously to modern space vehicles. However, stars are located very rare in space to base the technology namely on them. The galaxy space within spiral arms is just interstellar one.
So, there are both material and energy for cybernetic intelligent researchers in order to produce everything necessary owing to nanotechnologies and to exist in cosmic space, using totally quantum effects. It is possible now to imagine their “organism”.
9.3. The Body Structure or Design
In order to overcome interstellar distances, cybernetic intelligent researchers have to be equipped with the magnetic engine described in the Second Part. Therefore, the design of the magnetic space vehicle (Section 6.2) may be used for the approximate representation with the same remark about the risk to foretell incorrectly the technology of the far future. But there is no other way when we want to imagine the main protagonist.
The exterior may be imagined as in Fig. 2.15, but without the gondola (small spheroid below in Fig. 2.15), supposing the people absence. The big spheroid represents the surface of the multi-layer thin film (of course, other supposed variants of design are possible) which is similar to the solid body owing to the distributed forces of super-currents inside the main propulsor. This layer plays role of “legs”.
All film layers may be semi-transparent because of the small thickness (several molecules) and they would fulfill different functions. The multi-layer compound is schematic supposition. Other variant may be, for example, molecules rebuilding according to command into temporary combination for the concrete task fulfillment.
It is difficult to propose what would be “arms” but nanotechnology should say something. In spite of this, the most perfect “eyes” may be the holographic vision by means of some thin film receptor matrix over all the surface of spheroid and processing in the real current time. The pupil of human eye, through which we see all details and colors of the external world, has area (5-10 mm2) billions times less than the big spheroid surface with dimensions of a stadium. The last one is advantageous to see all objects around in details at the great distance. The scenery seems to be rich and varied during own movement.
The visualization of physical fields is very useful. The internal surface of spheroid would work as antenna and it would be “ears” and “voice”. The internal volume inside the thin film surface of the spheroid is supposed to be empty.
The external upper layer may play the role of “skin”. It has to change its transparency and color from black to white or to reflect as a mirror. The temperature regime would be held in such a manner.
One of layers has to be “the brain”. Please, estimate what the surface area might be in comparison with that of the human brain cortex 2.2 m2 (Section 1.2) and what the supposed capacity of the memory could be…
The energy storage device may play role of “the stomach”. This “stomach” may contain all the energy of the working magnetic field which is very great. However, the energy charging has to be initially and after this the energy is not lost. It has to circulate between the propulsor and the storage device and it has sense of “the reactive energy” (Sections 6.1 and 6.2). The electric current would be imagined as “the blood”.
Superconductors and switches for the control over the energy circulation would be compared with “the blood circulatory and nervous systems” of living beings.
Magnetic catching of atoms met during the flight, together with nanotechnology sorting, would be “the mouth”.
Such is “the schematic portrait” of the hypothetical space researcher, that is, the “cybernetic intelligent person”, who would be able for the everlasting existence in space and who should possess the self-perfection (next Section 9.4). Its “organism” is supposed to work only owing to quantum effects.
The darkness, emptiness, and cold… This is a nice ecological niche! But it is not for the living inhabitant to dwell, whose normal place is the surface of a cozy warm illuminated planet. An ecological niche for an owner of cybernetic intelligence is almost everywhere. The pertinent proverb may be “as a fish in water”.
It was told about the rational form or shape of the body of revolution which is advantageous for the existence in interstellar space. At the same time, the special task fulfillment would also demand other rational forms or shapes to be produced too: from the body of the simplest geometric shape to the imitation of a living being if it is in need.
9.4. The Self-Perfection and Evolution
There is everything necessary for the long-time existence in the Galaxy interstellar space (Section 9.2) and, consequently, to overcome the corresponding distance. There would be the suitable candidate for the mission (“a portrait” in Section 9.3).
However, the important ethical problem ought to be solved. Such a far deportation was always the kind of punishment. The cybernetic person would agree beforehand with the going away forever. Other variant is to create this “person” or to install the software and memory (“the soul”) already in the far space. Then the severe environment would become a native home for him.
On the other hand, the intelligent cybernetic researcher would understand that humans could not exist anywhere out of the own planet surface for a long time and such a mission is impossible for them. At the same time, “the life” in the far cosmic space would be quite comfortable for “a cybernetic individual”. The communication, for example, with the Earth and other similar researchers, of course, would be supported and possibilities to work, to survive, to be amused, and to get information would be provided on a sufficient scale.
If the described ethical problem is solved, then the next one grows and it is also very serious. The existence in the interstellar space during thousands of years, keeping only initial design and possibilities, would not be advantageous for survival. It would be considered to be stagnation. The perfection process and the evolution are in need. All authors talk about it but nobody knows how it would be made.
Russian academician A.N. Kolmogorov (Fig. 3.3) was among the first authors who had their say [46] (page 204):
Fig 3.3. Russian academician A.N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987) [84].
“The well-known interest is to questions:
Can digital machines reproduce something similar to themselves ones and can the progressive evolution occur during the process of such self-reproducing, leading to the creation of digital machines which are substantially more perfect than initial ones?
Can digital machines experience emotions? Can digital machines want anything and raise for themselves new problems which were not raised for them by their designers?
There is some attempt sometimes to ground the negative answer to similar questions by means of:
a) a restrictive formulation of the definition of meaning “digital machine”,
b) the idealist interpretation of meaning “digital machine”, at which it is easy to prove the lack of ability for the thought process not only of digital machines but also of a human…
…However, it is important to understand distinctly that the materialist world outlook does not contain any principled and well-grounded arguments against the positive answer to our questions. These questions positive answer is the modern form of the thesis about the natural rise of life together with the material basis of consciousness” (end of the citation).
Kolmogorov’s supposition is just needed for the expected perfection process in the course of time. But it contradicts to the Gödel Theorem (the Section 1.2). We shall never know either one outstanding mathematician (Kolmogorov) ignored the discovery of other outstanding (Gödel) or he was simply not acquainted with it.
So, “the digital machines”, that is, cybernetic intelligent persons, would produce next generations of similar and better ones but it is not clear in what meaning A.N. Kolmogorov applied the word “evolution”.
The evolution in a living world and the perfection process means the huge plurality of born creatures, death of them and the natural selection with accordance to the Charles Darwin Theory. Such a process is scarcely applicable in the considered case.
If A.N. Kolmogorov is right, then the perfection process of cybernetic persons, which is still not clear for us in details, is nevertheless real. The tempo of it has no importance because of huge time duration to millions of Earth years. The resultant level of development of the cybernetic cosmic intelligence would supposedly surpass essentially its initial level which would have been reached by biological living creators in the past. Moreover, the similarity to the human (alien) mind (beginning of Section 8.1) would be also scarcely in need. The resultant cybernetic intelligence would not be similar to anything known. There would be in Part Four some indirect signs of the probable Kolmogorov’s rightness.
9.5. About “The Super-Civilization”
It was told (Section 3.5) about “The galaxy Super-Civilization” (“Type III”), which was supposed to possess all galaxy energy, and it was told about unsuccessful attempts to observe the infra-red radiation from such civilizations. It was said also about the extrapolation in this case of our energy problem of young civilization of “the zero type” onto the old and perfect ones.
At the same time, even schematic imagination of such a galaxy civilization in details was qualified as impossible for human understanding.
Incidentally, the main amount of the galaxy energy is considered to be contained in its mechanical rotation [1] if “the dark energy” is still not proved and achievable for usage by anybody. The galaxy nuclear energy would have too small volume density because of rarified hydrogen and helium (one atom per cubic centimeter in the interstellar space [65]), that seems to be insufficient for the intensive infra-red radiation to be observed. Stars possess the great volume density of energy but their distribution in space is very rare.
These Chapter 9 and Part Three are finished here with such an alternative supposition about the galaxy civilization which would be based on considerations in sections 9.2-9.4 and which would be achievable for human partial understanding.
First of all, the extrapolation on the future or, that almost the same, onto the other old and developed contemporary cybernetic civilizations, the tendency of the energy consumption growth in the geometric progression ought to be rejected. It is clear that it is the way into nowhere. Resources would be exhausted sooner or later. On the contrary, the super-civilization seems to be long-term, almost everlasting one.
The newest tendency in the energy consumption is the energy saving. When we speak about the far future, then it would be quite logical to extrapolate namely this tendency. The last one leads just to the total using of quantum effects with the highest efficiency in all processes and to the absolute energy recuperation in all types of transport. It is the limit of today knowledge.
Researchers of far space or cybernetic “non-living persons”, who would be equipped in such a manner, would scarcely generate the intensive infra-red radiation. Moreover, gigantic constructions seem to be not in need both for dwelling and manufacturing because of nanotechnologies using. The highest ecological culture may also be suspected and it may reduce chance for observation too.
So, the purposeful communication by means of electromagnetic waves remains the only possibility to know about the presence of the cybernetic intelligent population or civilization in the interstellar space. The communication with the parental planetary civilization of living intelligent beings slackens gradually in the course of time when the distance grows to hundreds of light-years.
The planet of creators occurs to be surrounded with the imagined inflating sphere of location of the space cybernetic inhabitants.
When the distance reaches thousands of light years, then the time for communication may surpass the parental biological civilization lifetime. The further communication then may be continued between cybernetic persons who would be located not too far from each other in space. Their community may become the independent cybernetic space civilization in full meaning.
The described development seems to be natural enough without internal contradictions. The computerization and creation of the artificial cybernetic intelligence with its following direction into the cosmic space is quite probable for some aliens although the probability would not be, of course, equal to 100 percent.
The decisive factor is the lifetime duration of the cybernetic space civilization itself. But it is unknown for anybody. However, we may suspect its great longevity on the base of physical considerations (Section 8.4) on the one hand. On the other hand, we can operate with numbers.
The biological planetary civilization may produce its intelligent cybernetic continuation with the more lifetime duration and with the provided possibility to become widespread in the cosmic space.
The numerical estimation is difficult because the percentage is unknown. We also don’t know several additional fractional multipliers in this situation by analogy with the Drake Equation.
However, these multipliers would scarcely be too small. It may be even so that populations or interstellar cybernetic space civilizations could exist for a long time from their origin till our days. It was noted (the end of Section 2.6) that the first biologic intelligent civilization could appear in our Milky Way Galaxy about 8 billion years ago. The following ones might appear in the course of time during these 8 billion years up today. Please, imagine what value of civilizations number N would be received in the Drake Equation if duration L is billions or millions of years… Therefore, it was noted there the number “50”, which was supposed by F. Drake for alien communicable intelligent civilizations in our Milky Way, may be good for contemporary cybernetic ones.
However, these civilizations do not belong to aliens themselves, although they would be the confirmation of these living creatures presence in the past. Aliens would have been evidently creators of the initial cybernetic space inhabitants as ancestors of the late ones.
If these considerations are right, then other cybernetic civilizations would exist not only in gigantic galaxies, as the Milky Way and M31, but also in some “small” ones with 5-10 billions of stars. Each cybernetic civilization must have in its origin its ancestors created by some aliens.
So, it is logical to change the term “galaxy super-civilization”. The word “super”, which associates with the energy gluttony, may be removed and the letter “s” may be added to the word “civilization”. The word “space” is rational in order to note that civilizations of cybernetic persons exist mainly in cosmic space. Planets are scarcely suitable for their activity as the source of materials and energy because of very rare distribution in space but they may be the undoubted subject of study.
The communication between cybernetic persons of different space civilizations may be problematic because of the great difference in the development, in the age, and because of sequential origination from different far in time and space biological civilizations.
The knowledge and achievements of more young civilization or population would scarcely be competing with the old one. (But the history and “vital activity” of young one may be of certain interest for observation by the old one).
At the same time, space civilizations would penetrate through each other while their diffusion along the galaxy disk. Distances between cybernetic persons have to be so great that nobody can become a hindrance for anybody.
The picture might be supplemented with the limited speed of light, that is, of any other electromagnetic signal. As a result, space civilizations seem to be a flabby formation.
These considerations are schematic because details are nevertheless unknown.
If the energy gluttony is not in need, then what would be their sense to exist?
“Who owns the information, owns everything!” [100]. It may be supposed that the knowledge, the information about the surrounding World, may be not only the main interest of existence but also may be even the sense of existence. In that case, would they pay no attention at young biological intelligence and civilization which may be only one in hundreds galaxies at the present moment? (Section 3.1)
If it is, then we could receive our only chance to observe some signs of their presence and activity. The hypothesis, which is expounded in this Chapter 9, then would have its partial confirmation. Moreover, the extraterrestrial aliens real presence in the past would also have the indirect confirmation.
Conclusion to the Part Three
The intelligence of living beings arose owing to biological evolution that limited their intellectual abilities at the same time (Section 1.4). Cybernetic intelligence, which may be created by biological one with the enough degree of probability, has no biological limitations but only physical ones.
Such an artificial intelligence is expected to be created by people in the middle of the current 21st century. It is only beginning and the situation after thousands of years is difficult to imagine. Its direction in the far space seems to be quite probable.
The competition with humans does not lead to danger because of special prohibitive commands in a program here on the Earth. But the more distance in cosmic space is the more the degree must be of the independence of the moving away cybernetic intelligence because of the limited speed of electromagnetic signal that makes the quick control to be impossible.
The lifetime duration of the biological individual, that is, a human or hypothetical alien, is extremely short on the cosmological scale. The same may be said about the lifetime duration of communicable civilizations of living beings which is supposed today optimistically to be about 10,000 years on average. The opinion of J.S.Shklovsky is mentioned in Section 8.5 that the biological civilization is “momentary” (from the cosmological point of view) and unstable. However, it may produce its cybernetic continuation and thus may confirm own cosmological significance.
Both the lifetime duration of the cybernetic individual and the lifetime duration of corresponding civilization are unknown. Both are supposed to be very great, taking into account considerations in Section 8.4. We don’t know what may limit their existence.
Each biological intelligent civilization is supposed to be located only on the surface of its own planet. The long existence on other celestial bodies and in cosmic space is problematic for them. On the contrary, there is no problem for cybernetic persons and for their civilization to exist everywhere, including the interstellar space. The Earth “belongs” to humans, the cosmic space “belongs” to cybernetic persons.
To call a cybernetic person as “non-living one” ought to be in inverted commas because his intellectual abilities and spiritual life would substantially surpass human ones in the prospect. It was understood already by J.S. Shklovsky and colleagues on the Burakan Conference in 1971 (Section 8.5).
The approximate number of extraterrestrial intelligent and developed civilizations of the Milky Way Galaxy in the past was estimated supposedly to be evaluated from tens to hundreds (Chapter 3). Such a great number would give some percent of the produced artificial intelligence on the one hand. On the other hand, it would be the base for the natural selection and survival of a certain percent of intelligent cybernetic civilizations during millions of years while spreading inside the Galaxy.
Several space civilizations, which could survive with the self-perfection during millions of years, might diffuse throughout the Galaxy disk supposedly with the speed about milli-light one. Cybernetic persons, who might become more perfect than their initially created ancestors, would discover and research all interesting objects, including planets with the rich biological life.
Inasmuch as the information obtaining is supposed to be the main sense of their existence, would they pay no attention to our young, new, and rare (once in the Galaxy at millions of years) civilization? Moreover, when enter into the cosmic space and the creation of the artificial intelligence (one moment on the cosmological scale) begins just now…
It may be our only chance to know about the alien intelligence presence. Although the initiative cannot obviously belong to us, should we see or know anything about it? Let us pass to the next Part Four with this hope.
Part Four
Identify Unidentified Objects
Chapter 10. Are they Present?
10.1. Pioneers
The question “are Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs) present?” was debated by interested people during mainly the whole second half of the 20th century. There was no other important topic than to prove to each other “yes” or “no”. However, the possibility of the alien cybernetic intelligence presence in the cosmic space may follow from consideration similar to conclusions to previous parts even when we did not see any suspicious objects.
This Section 10.1 represents the last digression № 5 with author’s own recollections.
The first author’s acquaintance with UFO problem occurred in 1959 at one of monthly meeting of “The Science Fiction Lovers Club” in Kharkov, Ukraine. An unknown man lifted up a newspaper from one of the soviet republics of Central Asia. Possibly, the title of the newspaper was “Tashkent Pravda”. “Here! Spectators in the summer cinema could not watch the film because of the light from the sky. Four luminous circles were moving rapidly, keeping the formation of the rhomb shape”.
The man also retold us several intriguing episodes from the book by Donald Menzel [25] which was not still translated and edited in the USSR. Its Russian translation was published later in 1962. It is amazing that the author himself was not interested in that. It took 18 years to fulfill this more.
At beginning of 1978, listening to the tape recorder, I was acquainted with the famous lecture of Felix Yurievich Ziegel, who was the senior lecturer of the Moscow Aviation Institute and the author of tens of popular books on astronomy. The lecture took place on the 1st of July 1976 at the scientific and experimental plant “Kulon” in Moscow and it was devoted to UFO.
I turned out to be among those listeners of that lecture who were shocked. All the information was scientifically systematized and it was reported quietly and ordinarily with the soft Moscow accent. In particular, I was astounded by the pilots of UFO near their landed UFOs. He added, possibly, having seen the listeners’ lengthened faces, “Yes, yes, pilots of UFO!”
I sent the letter to F.Yu. Ziegel and our 5-year correspondence began. His letters were imbued with the extraordinary kindness and friendliness. It was amazing for that moment of our history. The exceptional and very rare person was seen behind lines of the letter. “It seems to me that this matter is so significant, that I do not regret any efforts. In any case, I always follow this principle” (Fig. 4.1).
I began to send to F.Yu. Ziegel narratives of UFO eye-witnesses. Unfortunately, only two cases represented observation from the relatively small distance (Section 10.3).
Fig. 4.1. F.Yu. Ziegel’s autograph scanned by author.
F.Yu.Ziegel invited me to visit him at an occasion. The occasion happened already in the same 1978. Felix Yurievich met me in the doorway of his Moscow apartment 1st of November at 16 o’clock.
Fig. 4.2. F.Yu. Ziegel (1920-1988) [119].
Photograph from “Wikipedia” (Fig. 4.2) coincides better than other ones with his appearance in my memory. Unfortunately, I used the most part of given me 45 minutes for the explanation of the incorrect idea that seemed to be dangerous to write in a letter. The notorious pilots of UFO were supposed by me to be usual people who were born, brought up and prepared for serving in the society of UFO. 1/3 of century was demanded to come to the much probable solution of this problem (Section 12.5).
One of my 18 questions to F.Yu. Ziegel concerned the UFO photograph which was mentioned by him in his lecture of 1st July 1976. I expected that it was made from a small distance and it would show the UFO look in details. However, this photograph was made from far distance. I did not understand at once its great importance when F.Yu. Ziegel showed me the journal (Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3. The approximate copy of the photograph of the trajectory of the object of 02.10.1974. Author’s drawing is explained in the text.
The photograph had its interesting history. The UFO study group “Project Starlight International” built the observatory for the UFO research on the plot of 160 hectares near town Austin, Texas, in 1973. The observatory was equipped not only for registration of the objects but also for communication by the way of signals. In particular, 91 lanterns were arranged along the circumference with the diameter of 30 meter. Their simultaneous flashes were supposed to be observed even from the Moon orbit [27].
The object appeared on 2nd of October 1974 when the observatory construction was not yet finished. However, cameras were already acting, synchronized and the automatic control was switched on. Processing of photographs and films showed that the object moved horizontally at the height of 82 kilometers with the speed of 16,000 kilometer per hour and it changed twice the direction of its flight at 90 degree. Fig. 4.3 is the drawn copy of the journal photograph which was made with the long exposition and it thus registered the trajectory of the object.
A 6-7 meter radius of the turn in points of the fracture of the trajectory at the speed 16,000 km/h allowed to calculate the dynamic overload about 3,000 unit that excluded the living beings presence on board. We spoke about the pilotless regime whereas it was already told on the Burakan Conference (1971, published Proceedings in Russian in 1975 [50]) about the probability of the cybernetic intelligence in space.
The intelligence of the object of 02.10.1974 would also follow from the fact that no one such an object appeared above the observatory of the “Project Starlight International” during 1974-1978 that was then also noted by F.Yu. Ziegel.
The horizontal flight at the height of 82 km and turns with 3,000 units overloading were impossible for the terrestrial engineering. So, the group “Project Starlight International” had obtained the first documental confirmation about the presence of the alien intelligence and also about the signs of its cybernetic character. But we did not understand fully this pioneering achievement.
It was evident that tens of enthusiasts of the UFO research and many eye-witnesses visited the small room in the Moscow 5-floor house. F.Yu. Ziegel collected 17 volumes of descriptions of several hundreds of cases of UFO observation by different eye-witnesses in the USSR. This information was partially published [58], also in the internet. It was never his personal monopoly. He left it to other researchers.
F.Yu. Ziegel prepared himself earlier to the mission of the priest of the Orthodox Church. One may guess what an excellent priest he would be owing to his soul features… But he chose finally astronomy and mathematics. The paradox of his life is that the deep believer turned out to be one of the main enthusiasts of the thing which is defined by the Orthodox Church as “the diabolical obsession”.
Moreover, to be the active researcher of UFOs, that is, the social leader, especially being the teacher of students in the important high educational institution, was dangerous at that period of soviet history. Undoubtedly, Felix Yurievich Ziegel was the heroic person.
At the same time, he was romantic similarly to the majority of other great scientists. He supported (because of contradictions in eye-witnesses narratives) the idea that the object, which caused the explosion near the river “Tunguska” in 1908, moved before its explosion slowly and it maneuvered [56].
You see that to keep silence here about this outstanding man, being personally acquainted with him, especially on his centennial (1920-2020), would be inadmissible. End of the digression № 5.
10.2. Eye-Witnesses
Almost all the information about unidentified flying objects (UFOs) is based on the testimony of occasional eye-witnesses. Therefore, the specific problem arises. It is generally accepted in the science that the information must be objective and a phenomenon itself has to be able for reproducing and further study, experiments, verification, etc.
The people perception is subjective, individual and very different for every person. The vision, hearing, attention, the individual character may differ very much. At the same time, the phenomenon, that is, the UFO appearance can’t be repeated and it may occur only during seconds or minutes.
Some details remain clearly in the memory. Others are indefinite. Something passed out of the consciousness, the other one is forgotten. The shock because of the amazing object or simply fear because of unknown thing hinders to memorize the event which was seen.
The second problem arises after event watching. How could it be explained to other people, who did not see, if the object was not similar to anything? It has no analogy in the memory of the eye-witness. Moreover, there is no word in the language to describe correctly the object. “The bluish light”, “the tender twinkling”, “sharp jumps”, “pulsating borders”, etc., can characterize the phenomenon only approximately. However, it is understood literally by other people. “Objects were similar to frying-pans”. And the artist draws frying-pans. “They were like saucers”. And the artist draws big saucers.
The information from eye-witnesses must be carefully filtered in order to exclude the objects observations which may be explained with other causes (Section 12.1). The rest amount may be “true UFOs”.
F.Yu. Ziegel supposed that only 0.05 percent of people saw the true UFO. This number was criticized as too small. On the contrary, Arthur Clark wrote that almost every attentive man can see an UFO at least once during his life. He himself saw them repeatedly. The author of this composition supports this point of view.
It is in need also to ignore madmen and lovers of jokes (both are seen at once). Mystifications are seen owing to evident profit for authors and to improbable details. For example, George Adamski wrote in his book “Flying Saucers Landed” that he saw fields with cereals on the Moon and beautiful towns on the Venus. His author’s honorarium stimulated the second book “Flying Saucers Return”.
The other author Benjamin Simon received the testimony of the husband and his wife by means of the hypnosis. People, who were under the hypnosis, consider suggested actions and events to be quite real. Therefore, the presence or participation of the hypnotist makes the version to be not authentic.
In general, the version with only one improbable or mistaken detail must not be accepted for consideration.
So, the information may be used when an eye-witness does not receive any profit or advantage from the testimony (but he sometimes receives only troubles). People are not in need to lie without a serious personal cause. If everybody is suspected to be the deceiver, then we could not receive the information about UFOs in general. We ought to believe each other. Everybody can be the eye-witness: you and I (I already turned out to be, next Section 10.3, 4th story).
People need tell to somebody about unusual event. The new problem arises again. In order to avoid the reputation of an abnormal one but, at the same time, to have a satisfaction from his narration, the eye-witness may dissemble consciously certain unusual details. It is easy to guess that these details are just the most intriguing, interesting and important ones!
The eye-witness may simply fear to tell his story frankly to the unknown person who after that would do something with this information. It may be seen that eye-witness narratives may contain not so much deceive as the concealment.
Besides, a pilot of an airplane, a captain of a ship, a driver of the heavy-load car, a machinist of train may fear the suspicion about having the hallucination. The detriment may be caused to their professional suitability. It may be thought that the information, which is gathered about UFOs, is not full in general.
The listed shortcomings ought to be known when we have no other way but only to use the information from eye-witnesses. However, it is quite a normal situation. The judicial sentence may be built on the base of the eye-witness testimony. The mankind history is also based mainly on eye-witnesses stories, not to mention about the Holy Scripture.
For example, the scientific study of the ball lightning is also based on the eye-witnesses narratives. The hypotheses amount about this phenomenon reached several tens but to make the ball lightning in laboratory failed up today. Nobody calls eye-witnesses of the ball lightning “drug addict”, “drunkard”, “madman”, “deceiver”. The situation with UFOs is quite another because they are politicized. More about it is in Section 12.6.
Passing to the second half of humanity, to people who did not see UFO, we meet again the problematic situation. People are mainly egocentric, distrustful and suspicious. The outstanding physicist Ernst Mach did not want to recognize the atoms existence because he could not see them.
French academicians of the 19th century did not want to consider the narratives about the ball lightning because they did not see it. F.J.D. Arago said in this connection his known expressions. We must not refuse the existence of a phenomenon because we ourselves did not see it.
It is appropriate to illustrate described problems with the known UFO classification (Fig. 4.4) from the journal “New Scientist” [27]. This table was characterized as “the memorial to riches of the human imagination”.
Fig. 4.4. The classification table of UFOs shapes “The Memorial to Riches of the Human Imagination” from the journal “New Scientist” [27].
It is unknown what analysis or thoughts were the base for such the categorical statement which represented tens of eye-witnesses together with the author of the classification to be quite deceivers and fools.
It is well-known that the rocketry is the main facility for space flights. Therefore, it might be expected that several pictures of the table of the UFO classification (Fig. 4.4), if it was the imagination indeed, would contain some images similar to rockets. However, it was not. No one eye-witness said about it independently from each other.
Moreover, excepting the airplanes silhouettes on the bottom, all UFO shapes there represent the body of revolution. It may not be occasional as you will see in Section 11.2.
Of course, the UFO classification in Fig. 4.4 has shortcomings. The most serious one seems to be the same shape in different table cells. People could see the same object at a different distance and angle in different details. As a result, its shape and details are described to be different too.
In spite of this, the classification in Fig. 4.4 may be considered as the useful attempt to generalize the plurality of single instances into some system. Objects on hundreds of today videos in the internet may be recognized in this table. Author’s personal experience also is not the exception (the next Section 10.3, 4th story).
Eye-witnesses stories are told not only about amazing objects but also about strange subjects which may be similar to humans. They are named often “aliens”, “ultra-creatures”, “newcomers”, sometimes also “humanoids”, “UFO pilots”, “UFOnauts”, “demons”, and so on.
The information from eye-witnesses became subjected to division. On the one hand, UFOs existence is acknowledged. On the other hand, these subjects are considered as a myth together with “the Bigfoot”, mermaids, wood-goblin, etc.
Such a division of the information and ignoring the uncomfortable part of eye-witnesses narratives seem to be an easy and lazy solution similarly to the “New Scientist” judgment above. The mentioned uncomfortable part of eye-witnesses narratives differs in principle only in less plurality.
The game must be honest. We have no other information instead eye-witnesses narratives and we ought to deal with it carefully. “To throw out the baby with the bath-water” is the proverb in several languages.
So, a solution has to be found, taking into account, that to see or to hear real living aliens is quite utopia in accordance with the scientific conclusions which are reviewed in the Part One. The explanation attempt is made in Section 12.5.
Finally, the work with eye-witnesses stories represents the separation of the useful signal from the noise. The individual approach is in need, taking into account the personal qualification, own experience of the eye-witness and the degree of the trustworthiness. Videos are interesting too, although the digital technology allows easy to produce artificial pictures and films.
Eye-witness narratives continue to keep their importance. On the one hand, the statistic analysis would be made owing to several tens of thousands of versions which are collected, for example, in the USA. On the other hand, certain versions with the undoubted truthfulness would be studied in details from scientific and engineering positions.
It is logical to remember that the intelligent objects of research can change their behavior and reduce the small information received by us. The importance of present day eye-witnesses testimonies may be heightened in the course of time.
10.3. Author’s Versions
Thousands of versions of the UFO observation are published in the literature and internet. To repeat well-known ones seems to be not purposeful in spite of their importance. At the same time, the faithfulness to the genre ought to be kept. So, four versions from the author’s own modest and short-term experience are proposed here for publication.
1.UFO birth. The storywas narrated to the author by the aerologist of the scientific-research ship one year after the event. The ship went from the port Tanger 20th of September 1980. The ship was moving in the Atlantic Ocean after twenty-four hours away from the Strait of Gibraltar about 200 miles to the west and simultaneously to the South from 36 degree to approximately 32 ones in the North latitude.
The object was noticed as the white point at the sky near zenith 21st of September 1980 a few minutes after 18 o’clock of the ship time. It descended faster than one minute and it stopped in the air behind of the ship stern. It had the shape of cigar with proportions to be thicker than the airplane fuselage. (Similar shapes are in the third column of the table in Fig. 4.4).
The color of the object was milky-white and it did not reflect the light of the Sun. The height of the Sun above horizon was 20-25 degree. The cloudiness was small. The wind was weak. The ship course was to the west and a little to the south.
The object contour was not clear-cut. It had the dark belt on the middle. Other elements of design were not seen, that is, the object had no external details as, for example, protuberances, seams, ribs of framework, ropes of aerostat, etc. It kept the horizontal position during descent. Descending and hovering were not accompanied by any sounds.
The object radiated two shafts of the light-yellow light from one of its ends. The light was not intensive similarly to the light of fog-lamps of a car. One of them was vertical, the other one was inclined.
The eye-witnesses turned out to be about 20 persons on the open deck. They all had a higher and secondary education. The narrator emphasized that the captain, the chief mate and the political worker were not among them.
Everybody waited, when the object would meet a cloud, in order to know the distance to it and consequently to determine its dimensions. It might be still said that its angular dimensions were corresponding to a finger on the reached arm.
Suddenly, the object turned out to be bifurcated, that is, the second one of the same shape and size arose near the first one. Both began after that to go away from each other at the obtuse angle along different and almost opposite directions.
One went to the north-east in the direction of Spain. It disappeared soon behind the cloud which was on the height 3-5 kilometers. Therefore, the object dimensions might be supposed to be more than of an airplane. Everybody stopped to observe it after.
The second object began to move to the north-west. Its angular size decreased quickly and it disappeared from sight during the time less than 10 seconds. Moving away, it did not approach to the horizon similarly to an airplane, which flies at the constant height. On the contrary, its ascent was simultaneous with moving away. It went as if along the tangent to the Earth surface. The object had neither the inversion trace (water fog trace) nor a tail.
The narrator switched on the ship meteorological radar when the object appeared and he looked simultaneously at clock. It was 18 hours 07 minutes of the ship time. When the second object disappeared, the aerologist returned to the radar control and he looked at clock again. It was 18 hours 11 minutes. Consequently, the duration of observation was about 4 minutes. The radar did not find anything within the radius 200 kilometers.
The weather-balloon was sent aloft quickly but the received cross-section of the atmosphere did not show any abnormal state or intensive air flow.
The event was recorded in the ship’s journal. Moreover, the report in details was written in accordance with the questionnaire form which was on the ship together with the instructive circular which demanded to answer several tens of questions about the UFO observation. The report was directed to the Odessa Department of the Meteorological Service of the USSR. The copy of the report remains on the ship.
The radiogram about the UFO observation contained also the report about the accident on the ship what had no relation to the UFO but it became the source of absurd hearsays, as the narrator told.
The aerologist narrated his story so correctly and professionally that any question to him was not in need. At the same time, he did not explain what accident occurred but I heard from other sailor that the electronics of devices for measuring the temperature of water, its salinity, etc, which were towed under the ocean surface, was injured.
The most intriguing detail of this story seems to be possible producing the second UFO by the first one. It might begin while descent and finished during stopping. The surrounding materials were only atmosphere gases and especially the water steam in the air. All this together with the following “software installation” and with the energy charging for the working magnetic field, all occurred during approximately one minute! It is amazing.
The attempt to identify this object with the rocket, which would be launched from the region of Canarias Islands, the narrator characterized as “clumsy”. Other intention to explain these UFOs as the cloud of dust within the air turbulence [51] was unsuccessful because of the quiet atmosphere on the one hand but the swift movement of both UFOs on the other hand.
The second UFO observation in the same voyage was at night 6 weeks later. However, it was considered to be not suitable for the official report because of only one eye-witness and of the short duration about 40 seconds.
The same narrator, the aerologist of the scientific-research ship, also added that they saw many years ago after the sunset several UFOs near the horizon which seemed to move in a zigzag line. One of them plunged into water, changing its own color from yellow-orange to blue and splashing the water spray.
2. Horror because of a stranger curiosity. The story was imparted to the author and recorded 4 months later than the event of the UFO observation. The narrator was the chief-pilot and commander of the crew of the regular-route airliner. He became the eye-witness of the UFO together with his crew and also with the commander of the air-squadron who turned out to be present on board of the aircraft.
The aircraft Tu-154 flew from the Odessa airport in the late evening 15th of May 1981 for the night flight “Odessa – Moscow”. Being near the town of Bryansk and between Bryansk and the town of Kaluga at height of 11,500 meters with the course at north and about 30 degrees to west, all the crew caught sight of the orange sinuous “worm”. It was seen at left and higher than the aircraft on 30-40 grades and about 30 grades to the west. It approached to the aircraft quickly. The time was 1 hour 45 minutes 16th of May 1981.
The orange “worm” turned out to be “the sinuous tail” of “the system” – such a name was given to the object by the eye-witness. “The system” had the pear-shaped form (Fig. 4.5a) and it was luminous with the white-blue light of “the neon character”.
Fig. 4.5. The object 16th of May 1981 before dividing (a) and after dividing (b, c). Author’s copy of the witness drawing.
“The system” had two bright formations: on the border and inside, which are marked as small circles in Fig. 4.5a. The internal bright formation changed its position. The white lines (black ones in the figure) diverged from the front border (Fig. 4.5). Nothing was seen through “the system” although the weather was unusually clear and cloudless with the exceptional visibility, the sky was starry.
The ground service answered the inquiry as it follows: “Do something what you want”. The aircraft descended from 11,400 meters to 6,500 and the course was changed on 40-50 degrees. However, the object continued to occupy the same position relatively to the aircraft. It seemed to be the parallel flight to the course of the aircraft with the same speed.
Several minutes later, the bright internal object of the round shape detached and left “the system”. It had also the white lines which diverged from its front border (Fig, 4.5b). At the same time, the regular rectangle arose inside “the system” (Fig. 4.5c). It was quite dark.
It was difficult to estimate the distance to the object. It was seemed to be not closer than one kilometer. Its angular size was no more than the Moon disk. At the same time, the impression was that the linear dimensions of the object or “the system” were more than the aircraft, that is, near 50 meters.
When the aircraft came into the zone of diverged from object lines and it crossed them, there was no mechanical action felt. Devices at this moment and during the rest of the time did not register anything. The magnetic compass was quiet. The radio-communication worked as usually.
“The system” was observed from four other aircrafts which were in the air within the same region. However, “the system” came up only to the aircraft, which was piloted by the narrator, and it did its “joint flight” namely with this aircraft.
“The system” left the aircraft after more than 12 minutes of “the joint flight”. The orange tail was seen from the ground after landing in the airport “Vnukovo”. In order to see it, the door was opened at once after the stop of aircraft and before the ladder was driven up. The object went away onto the north, in the direction, from where it had appeared.
Unfortunately, photographs of the object were not made. The only document is the record of talks with the ground service. The question of mine to the narrator was irrelevant: about the report to the leadership and the reaction. (The air-squadron commander was present on board of the aircraft and he was the eye-witness too). The narrator answered that reports were not made and questions were not followed both in Moscow and in Odessa.
However, all incidents in the air are obligatory for an analysis. This event was not the exclusion and it was analyzed in the meeting of the united squadron. (It became known later). It was told there, that the flight of the object was not only parallel to the course but also it did flight around the aircraft.
The indirect confirmation was in words of the chief-pilot: “We did not know whether we could come home to our families”. He also mentioned narratives of other pilots about UFO observations. It was known that UFOs did not reveal the aggression.
Secondly, it was also mentioned, that the aircraft crossed the diverged lines (they might be the condensed steam in the air because of the flight of the intensively magnetized body, Chapter 7). The parallel course of the object flight at the distance 1 kilometer would scarcely lead to such crossing.
I did not put the delicate question about the character of the aircraft load because the eye-witness doubted for a long time whether it is admissible to tell me this story. Probably, something hindered. At the same time, the leadership presence on board at night and the choice the aircraft by the UFO from five possible ones around in the air might be just connected with it.
Members of the “St Petersburg Commission of the Abnormal Phenomena Research in the Surrounding Medium” interrogated 126 {!} eye-witnesses of the object of 16th of May 1981 [51]. People of different inhabited localities from Bryansk to Kaluga saw the same object, about which the chief-pilot narrated, but at different angles and from very different distances. Their impressions and narratives were such contradictory that the Commission remembered the judicial proverb “he lies as an eye-witness”. The fact, that all eye-witnesses pointed the identical hour and minutes of the observation independently from each other, was evidently ignored by the Commission.
3. The ax against UFO. The story was told to the author 16 years later after the UFO observation. However, the version seems to be truthful, interesting and it concerns landing of the UFO that occurs rarely. Therefore, it is useful to acquaint with it. At the same time, the version was not investigated by anybody. It is unknown in literature up today. Besides, some its relation to next one may be possible.
The inhabitant of the settlement on the railway station Serbka at 60 kilometers exactly to the north from Odessa went out to the back side of his peasant homestead which looked towards the field to the west. The time was 4 hours at night in the summer 1978. It is unknown what stimulated his going out: animal anxiety or other cause.
He caught the sight of the white cupola which was seen behind trees several kilometers at the west. Thinking, that it would be a parachute, he called three of his neighbors and all four ones went to the road. Nobody had a weapon and one of them took an ax with him.
While they were going, the white round object (the right column and 5th position from the top in the table on Fig. 4.4) started slowly to ascend. When they came on the place, the object was already high up in the sky as the white dot.
The narrator himself was not the eye-witness of the object itself but he was the neighbor of these four ones. He was on the place of its landing at 13 o’clock of the same day and he became the eye-witness of the fresh “imprint”. He did not keep in mind, what crop was then on the field but he saw dried and pressed to the ground all plants within the print. He added that nothing grew on that place for many years.
It turned out that the author saw this place several years earlier than the story narration. I was occasionally on this place in 1991, that is, 13 years after the UFO landing but I didn’t still know about the event. The place identification was confirmed by narrator owing to several landmarks. The field was sown in 1991 with the maize. The place arrested attention because the plant height was 2-3 times more than others. The corn plants were rare in that place, that is, only 1/4-1/5 part of seeds had given corn-shoots. Corn-cobs had a usual form and size. The ground was quite free from other plants and it was black, as if plowed up not long ago.
The road character near the place showed increased humidity. The mechanical and electric contact with the ground would be good there. The place is flat and its height is 112 meters above the sea level. It is hidden from eyes because surrounding villages lay in deep valleys (Fig. 4.6). The only exclusion is just backward side of west peasant homesteads of the settlement on the west side of the railway station but the settlement appeared only after The Second World War.
The story seems to be not a hoax because all eye-witnesses did not appeal to anybody and they had no profit or advantage owing to this occasion.
Fig. 4.6. The fragment of map of the Odessa region. The side length of the retina coordinate square is equal to 4 kilometers. The point of the object landing is designated as a small black asterisk. Its distance from the station Serbka (Сербка) settlement is about 3 kilometers to the west.
4. The show for conversant. The author of this composition became the eye-witness and narrator himself. The event of the UFO observation occurred 9th of October 2004, Saturday, at 16 o’clock while working in the small amateur garden 60 kilometers to the north from Odessa. This place is on the map on Fig. 4.6 less than 1 kilometer on the south-west from the railway station “Serbka” (Сербка).
The weather was sunny and windless. The air temperature was about 10-12 Celsius degrees. There were no essential clouds. At the same time, the sky had not the clear blue color but it was covered with whitish haze that would be evidence of the increased amount of the water steam in the air.
Five objects, which seemed to be absolutely identical, moved at the sky from the south-west to the north-east, that is, from left to right for two eye-witnesses, who were farther on the east. The objects color was white as usual one of passenger aircrafts. The shape was similar to the long cylinder with the relation of the diameter to the length about 1:10. The same configuration is in the right upper angle of the classification on Fig 4.4. Such objects are evidently known. The form of ends was impossible to be understood: whether it was flat or round.
The contour was clear-cut and contrast. There were no visible details on their surface as protuberances, spots, stripes, etc. The size seemed to be commensurate with the aircraft or, possibly, slightly more. The speed on the background of sky was approximately the same as of an aircraft.
All five objects did not move longitudinally as dirigibles or the fuselage of an airplane, but in the across position as wings of an airplane without a fuselage (Fig. 4.7a), that is marked with the arrow. The trajectory was direct without swings. There was no tail or trace. The movement was soundless.
Fig. 4.7. The group of five objects 9th of October 2004 (a) with the direction of the Sun light marked with three arrows (b). Author’s drawing.
The sun was low above the horizon and it lighted up the back side of objects from the left (Fig. 4.7b). The lower half of cylinders was seen through the weak bluish haze. It was unconsciously associated with the great height. The aircraft on big height is usually seen through the binocular to be covered with such a haze. However, the height of flight was in this case substantially less. Objects were seen well without a binocular.
To estimate the distance to objects and their dimensions jointly was difficult as usually, because objects could not be identified with any known. The height of flight seemed to be 4-8 kilometers.
They were undoubtedly not dirigibles, airplanes, helicopters, rockets, birds. The known objects for comparison are not plural and to enumerate them mentally for the quick identification was easy. Clouds, dust, missiles are out of the question. The same may be said about a mirage because of the group flight over the sky and of the Sun position.
They moved as two aircraft links: first and second, keeping formation of echelon (Fig. 4.7a). Both links were so distant from each other that when the second 3 objects appeared, the first 2 ones was ready to go out of the field of vision. This “horizon” was very limited because of the observation from the bottom of the deep valley. At the same time, it was in need to turn the head in order to look at each link. The distance between both links is shortened in Fig. 4.7a to arrange them in the limited bounds of the picture.
The angular dimension of the scene, which was seen from the deep valley, was about 120-140 degrees. The duration of the phenomenon was about one minute.
Objects did not approach the horizon similarly to the aircraft on the constant height before their disappearance. They went as if on climb. They did not disappear slowly and to be gradually covered with the atmosphere haze. The disappearance was typical for UFOs: both “leading” of links joined on one straight line of sight and then all five ones disappeared during 2-3 seconds.
Aircrafts, which were flying at once after 16 hours at the same flight direction, had lightened up fuselage but dark wings from below because of the Sun light direction from behind and from above. They had also both the inversion trace of the condensed water steam and the aircraft engine sound.
It is amazing that I didn’t feel emotions. After possible variants quick turning over in mind, the first thought was: “Fantastic show”. The second one: “I don’t need see this in order to be sure that these objects exist but intransigent skeptics need”. But it was not right.
While looking at these objects, the old author’s invention was remembered, which was mistaken and the idea had been thrown away one quarter of a century ago. The shape in it was analogous to these objects… “They had made that I couldn’t”. It is mentioned again in Section 11.6.
The supposition was studied that objects would be pilotless reconnaissance vehicles “flying wing” with the propeller electric engine and the Solar batteries on wings. Their movement may be almost soundless.
However, such vehicle speed is usually slow relatively to an aircraft. Besides, aerodynamic keels for stability and for control must be seen. Flight as a group (aircraft link) is not rational, especially while testing and it is difficult for operators to keep exact formation distantly during the collective flight. The trajectory, if it is imagined to be prolonged backward, passed above the aerodrome which was closed 10 years earlier. Besides, it is difficult to believe that so complex technology would be tested in my country which was under social and politic stresses, having the nearest one as president elections 3 weeks later, that is, 31 of October 2004.
UFOs of 9 October 2004 flew approximately above the place of the earlier landing of 1978 (3rd story here) that stimulated to publish it in spite of poor information. Other flights above the same point had not been caught in sight.
There was the hypothesis that UFOs have the tendency to fly always along lines of some coordinate retina [7]. It may be debatable, but the existence of certain advantageous points on the Earth surface for periodical geophysical measuring is quite possible. The topic is continued in the Section 12.2.
So, the question in the title of this Chapter 10 “are they present?” may be considered as rhetorical one. Every human has a chance to see them, having the vision and attention, although once in life, as Arthur Clark said. It is in need now to elucidate physical principles of their movement in Chapter 11 after the small next digression.
10.4. “The Verification”
The opinion exists that the truthfulness or the authenticity of the version about the UFO observation may be improved by the way of the repeated investigation or verification. The American writer John Keel (1930-2009) undertook “journalist investigations”, supposing that the veracity of the information from eye-witnesses may be improved in such a manner. On the contrary, the author has the negative personal experience of such a verification, although modest one. It may be useful to tell about it here.
There was in “samizdat” (unofficial reproduction of unpublished MSS) or the unpublished text which is given from somebody to anybody: “Several Interesting Facts about UFO from the Press” on 4 pages. Its copy was enclosed in the letter to F.Yu.Ziegel 27th of September 1978. One version from 5 ones seemed to be interesting for him. It is cited below.
“UFO near Odessa 17th of October 1977. Two families of inhabitants of Odessa: G. (illegible) and D. (it ought not to be published) went by a motor-car from Ochakov to Odessa. About 19:00 o’clock they caught sight of the disk of the crimson-red color in the sky to be similar to the Sun at sunset. They paid attention because the disk was on the north side of the sky.
One hour later, at 20:15, they caught sight of the disk again, when it was descending on the ground more slowly than a parachute. Its diameter was about 30 meters. The disk was transformed while descent into “the medusa”. Possibly, it turned onto the other side. “The medusa” then blazed up as a garland of fires. Side lights were seen over all surface of “the medusa” similarly to the passenger ship at night.
Two columns of the light blazed up above “medusa” when it was on the height about 100 meters. These columns of light were directed upwards and were so powerful that they penetrated through clouds. “The medusa” was hovering about 5 minutes at this height and then sat down at the distance from eye-witnesses approximately 1-2 kilometers. The place of landing was hidden by the trees.
People saw only the bright spot of light on the place of landing. This spot of light extinguished gradually. The place of landing is between villages Nechayannoe (it means “unexpected” or “accidental”) and Krasnoe (“red”) where people saw UFO too. Flying disk differed from the Sun disk only owing to its more bright edge.” (End of citation).
The date 17th of October was amazing for F.Yu. Ziegel because of the well-known recent Petrozavodsk Phenomenon 20th September 1977. It was widely elucidated in the press. F.Yu. Ziegel wrote in the answering letter, that there were several analogous phenomena in the same period in the north-west of the European part of Russia, in Karelia and Finland that was not published in the soviet press. Landing of the similar UFO near Odessa would widen the region of such phenomena onto the South of the European part of the USSR. F.Yu. Ziegel asked to verify the authenticity of this version and to clarify it in more details.
My activity was based on the pure logic and without taking into account the social life of that period, although my personal experience was wide and negative. Firstly, the original source of information was searched, that is, the small notice in a newspaper, although the absence of the reference on it in the mentioned “samizdat” would not be occasional. There was found nothing in republican and regional newspapers of the period 1977-1978, including factory newspapers, in the archive of the main city library.
Secondly, about 100 persons with the surname D. were found owing the Passport Office. All 19 families D. were visited at home but nobody confirmed to be eye-witnesses of the UFO of 17th of October 1977. If they refused to tell the story, then to publish the surname would not be admissible.
One might say that this version was hoax or illusion. However, my father had read this notice in a newspaper and he said he remembered the surname D.
The same state service, which forced eye-witnesses to keep silence, could withdraw the newspaper from archives. To receive the objective information under the condition of such a pressure was quite impossible.
To visit villages, where people saw UFO too, seemed to be after all not productive. The situation was not understood at once in that period but it became gradually clear in the course of time.
The broadcast of radio-station “Mayak” in 1979 gave the positive estimation to the activity of enthusiasts of the UFO research. But the life was built on the principle “to think one thing, say another and do the third one”. The UFO 17th of October 1977 turned out to be in the company of those ones after “the Petrozavodsk Phenomenon” which were not mentioned in the mass press.
The failure of my investigation did not prevent F.Yu. Ziegel to include the version in his publications and even refer to me (which you can be proud of). He understood the situation perfectly.
The situation in the USA with the influence of state services at this sphere is unknown for me but “the main” American eye-witness Kenneth Arnold was always under the pressure of journalists, skeptics, and of the public opinion. His version was changed during his life.
So, the use of verifications may be debated. The information objectivity and veracity remains to be the main problem.
Chapter 11. “The Interstellar Spaceship Engine”
11.1. Introductory Remarks
Participants of the Conference on UFOs in the USA at the end of 1975 [27] set two tasks: firstly, to find the most demonstrative arguments for convincing that “something is contained in it”; secondly, to attempt to clarify what physical principles could be used by the UFO creators, for example, for the propulsion. “Our main aim is to know how the engine for interstellar flight works, and then the game is worth the candle” [27].
Concerning the first task, it seems to be not purposeful to convince anybody “that something is contained in it”, taking into account all described here. Besides, almost half a century passed after those words were said. There are today possibly only few people who need to be convinced.
The second task stands for enthusiasts since long time ago. A certain Smith in the USA tried to measure the magnetic field of UFO in the middle of 20th century. The idea that UFO convey by means of the magnetic field is old and it is often remembered. It is in need only to concretize this old idea.
It would be done on the base of physical principles which are expounded in chapters 5-7. The theoretic model of the magnetic vehicle may be used in order to try to explain features or properties of UFOs. Physical principles of the magnetic propulsor are expounded in Chapter 5. The role of the engine in the narrow sense is fulfilled with the on-board energy storage device of the great capacity together with the current control system and with the on-board energy source of the relatively small power (Section 6.1). All in the aggregate with the magnetic propulsor may represent the notorious engine in the wide sense.
The propulsor of an airplane may be the propeller, of a motor-car – wheels. The engine of both ones in the narrow sense may be the internal combustion motor.
Inasmuch as UFOs submit to physical laws, it could be possible to explain their features or properties from the position of the theory of electricity and magnetism of Faraday-Maxwell in spite of possible incompleteness of the last one. Such an explanation may correspond to our level of knowledge and technologies. To understand in the full volume the science and technology of UFOs, which would supposedly leave us behind in millions of years, seems to be impossible. It may be said here only about the partial schematic understanding.
On the other hand, the main physical principles would be objectively simple. The simplicity is in the base of the engineering reliability. It gives to us the additional chance for approximate partial understanding.
The attempts of explanations in such a manner of UFO features and properties are undertaken here on the base of the summarized features from eye-witnesses narratives in literature and from the lecture of F.Yu. Ziegel 1st of July 1976. These suppositions are classified in the following sections 11.2-11.5 as 4 groups: the shape (external look), features in flight, features in landing, the influence onto other objects.
11.2. The Shape
1. The UFO shape represents usually the body of revolution: spheroid (sphere, an oblate spheroid or an oblate ellipsoid of revolution, the lens form, the lentil, and disk), spheroid with the belt of the ring form. Taking into account the inaccuracy and the difference of the individual human visual perception, it may be seen in Fig. 4.4 that the spheroidal UFO shape, including ones with the ring belt, represents the majority. Such a form may be advantageous for the uniform distribution of internal magnetic forces because of great values of super-currents (Section 6.2).
The second group of UFO shapes contains long forms: long cylinder, cigar, the stretched ellipsoid of revolution, “cucumber”. This shape is present on Fig. 4.4 too. Probably, this shape would have the other principle of the magnetic propulsion concerned in Section 11.6. All following considerations in sections 11.2-11.5 mention mainly the spheroid (round) form considered in details in chapters 5-7.
2. Protuberances and angular form are relatively rare that may also be explained with the film design. The angular form is not useful because of the electrodynamic tension concentration. Several bodies of revolution on Fig. 4.4 would be seen at the side-view as the rhomb.
3. One of the causes of the plurality of different shapes may be the different UFO origination and their different tasks which must be fulfilled. The great longevity would also lead to such a result (sections 8.4 and 9.5).
4. When the transparent object was observed, then the perfect thin-film design would be meant. The contradiction between own minimal mass and the maximal dimensions would be solved in such a manner (Section 6.2).
5. The color of UFO at the sunshine is mainly white. It may be the day color of one of the external film layers for the protection from heating up by the Sun radiation. The reflecting surface as a mirror was also observed. Probably, the color may be controlled similarly to our liquid crystals. Then it would become black when the Sun is below the horizon. Besides, the color of the liquid crystal film may seem to be different, depending on the angle of sight, especially at the different character of the illumination (sections 6.2 and 9.3).
6. The luminous halo around UFO at night may be supposed to be the side effect of its own very intensive magnetic field which is necessary for the dipole force creation (Section 7.2). Therefore, to avoid this luminescence is impossible. At the same time, the effect cannot be reproduced in laboratory because the supposed great intensity of the constant magnetic field is not yet achieved by our technology.
The supposed cause of this luminescence is “the magnetic pumping” which may be explained and calculated physically [38]. Electrons of atoms, especially most distant from nucleus, receive the additional energy. Its surplus is thrown off as a kind of the quantum of light of the certain wavelength, that is, of the certain color of the spectrum.
The similar process is “the electric pumping” in light eliminating diodes, lasers and in neon pipes. Eye-witnesses therefore characterize it as “neon” light. Stars may not be seen through this halo because of their weaker light (the narrative of the chief-pilot in the Section 10.3, Second story).
The luminescence around UFO is not seen in the daytime because of its weakness relatively to the day light. Donald Menzel noted with irony that day and night saucers are different ones [25].
The different color of the magnetic luminescence may be owing to gases of air, water steam and admixtures. The main role is played by oxygen because it is paramagnetic gas and it must be attracted to the UFO surface where the field intensity is the highest (Section 7.2). The nitrogen is diamagnetic gas and it is repelled from the UFO surface to where its field intensity is less and the magnetic pumping is weak. Therefore, the yellow and orange color of the night luminescence around UFO would represent mainly the oxygen spectrum lines. It is the possibility to measure the intensity of the UFO magnetic field distantly with the indirect method (the solution of the task proposed by F.Yu. Ziegel in his letter: Fig. 4.1, Section 10.1).
7. The compressed layer of the oxygen on the surface of UFO may be supposed as the refractive medium for the radio-waves of radar. In that case the reflected signal would not return to the radar. This oxygen dense layer would refract also the visible light that might be seen 9th of October 2004 (the bluish haze in concluding 4th story, Section 10.3).
11.3. Features of Flight
1. The speed of UFO can vary in wide limits, probably, owing to the control over the electrodynamic propulsion force (Section 5.6) and owing to properties of the magnetic aerodynamics (Section 7.2), that is, owing to the small air resistance, especially at great values of speed. Very wide diapason of the UFO speed represents the most expressive feature which contradicts to attempts to explain UFO by means of natural causes.
2. The wind has no influence upon an UFO in spite of its great dimensions. The supposed cause is again the small electrodynamic resistance of the air flow around the strongly magnetized body (Section 7.2) and the small controlled electrodynamic force which provides the compensation of the resistance force (Section 5.6).
3. Flights on the low height are rare and always with a small speed. It allows to minimize the irreversible energy loss from curl currents in a ground (water). Curl currents are induced because of the great magnetic field of the moving strongly magnetized body (Section 7.4).
4. The descent on the ground (water) and the ascent are usually vertical in order again to reduce the energy loss from ground (water) curl currents (Section 7.4).
5. The descent on ground (water) and subsequent ascent are always with the slow speed in order to reduce the resistance force and energy loss because of curl currents analogously to previous item 4 (Section 7.4).
6. The vertical ray of light while the descent seems to be the location of the distance in order to have the soft landing.
7. The jerky start occurs only after slow achieving the height which excludes the substantial influence of the same curl currents induced in the ground (water).
8. The hovering of the magnetic vehicle is the regime with the minimal loss of the energy. Curl currents in a ground (water) are in that case equal to zero because of the zero body relative speed. Probably, this position of an UFO is also advantageous for observation, measurements, or the communication (Section 6.4).
9. The great power availability, which was noted by F.Yu. Ziegel in his lecture 1st of July 1976, in combination with the small energy consumption and with the high economy represents the consequence of the used physical principle which was considered in chapters 5-6 and mainly in Section 6.1.
10. The observed great dynamic overloading (example in Section 10.1) may be possible owing to “the thin film design” (Section 6.2) because of the small mass of the thin film which is also strengthened with the internal distributed electrodynamic forces of super-currents in its layers. Besides, the jerky increasing of speed is useful because of the advantage of high speed in the air (Section 7.2).
11. The zigzag trajectory is supposed to be in need because of the only one direction of the external natural magnetic field that may be sometimes not suitable for the flight direction. The ability to great mechanical over-loadings makes it to be possible without reducing of the speed value. The high speed is advantageous. The situation with the zigzag trajectory was compared with sailing at the opposite direction of wind (Section 5.4).
12. Flashes of light at night in points of the fracture of the zigzag trajectory would be the consequence of the sharp change of the UFO magnetic field configuration in these points. It is necessary because of the change of the movement direction relatively to the natural magnetic field (the previous item 11).
13. Leaps, that is, “the UFO disappeared from one place and it appeared at once in the other place”. Similarly to the zigzag trajectory, the UFO ability to the great overloading makes the jerky start and the analogous deceleration to be advantageous. It may be calculated (the textbook for school) that the acceleration and deceleration 3,000g during the leap for 10 kilometers demands in sum about 1 second.
Moreover, the magnetic field of atoms of air gases, which is coincident with the direction of the UFO magnetic field and which is accompanied with “the magnetic pumping” and the luminescence, changes into the opposite field direction of air atoms during the leap because of the Lenz Law. “The magnetic pumping” becomes impossible in that case and the luminescence disappears, making the UFO leap to be not seen at night. It becomes visible when the leap is finished and magnetic pumping begins to work again.
The speed threshold, which causes the luminescence to be impossible, is unknown. It may be said only that the luminescence continues at 1,600 kilometers per hour (the pilot’s testimony about the parallel flight with UFO, Section 12.3).
14. UFOs are indifferent to machine-guns shots (pilots’ testimonies while the Second World War, Section 12.3). The intensive own magnetic field of UFO gives the protection owing to “the magnetic ricochet” (Section 7.3).
Let us suppose the mass of the large-caliber bullet to be 100 gram and its speed 1 kilometer per second. Its kinetic energy is the same as of the cosmic micro-particle of 1 milligram which may be met by an UFO at its speed about 300 kilometers per second (the speed value has the second degree in the expression of the kinetic energy). Obviously, particles of such dust or sand size are not rare in the cosmic space and UFO is protected from them owing to its “magnetic fur-coat” (Section 7.3).
So, the electrodynamic reaction of UFO to the bullet is the same as to a small cosmic particle. Strong curl currents, which are induced in the metallic body of a bullet (missile), create the magnetic repulsion in accordance with the Lenz Law. The bullet trajectory is inclined without the substantial reducing of its speed (Section 7.3). Therefore, the bullet or missile detonating fuse cannot act.
The rotation of the bullet (missile), which is received while firing a shot (several thousand of revolutions per second), undergoes breaking in the intensive magnetic field and two variants are interesting. If the bullet had kept some rotation and also its gyro stability, then certain inclination of its trajectory (ricochet) might be observed by a gunner owing to a tracer light. It is especially probable near the edge of the UFO silhouette.
If the bullet had lost its rotation and the gyro stability and began to turn somersaults, then the tracer observation is interrupted and the bullet trajectory inclination cannot be seen. “The UFO swallowed bullets!” Both variants were observed during the Second World War.
15. There is some periodicity of the UFO appearance in the Earth atmosphere. One of explanations might be the advantageous arrangement of planets of the Solar System for the magnetic flight from certain directions, especially of the Jupiter, whose magnetic field is the most spread and intensive (Section 6.6).
11.4. Landing
1. The extinction of the luminous halo after landing on ground means extinguishing of the intensive own magnetic field (with the simultaneous receipt of its energy by the on-board storage device). It may be in need in order, for example, to exclude the influence of the strong magnetic field on measurements or for masking.
2. Remaining tracks or “imprints” on a ground after UFO landing may be the consequence of the process of the strong magnetic field extinguishing. The curl currents in a ground cause together with super-currents of the magnetic propulsor the electrodynamic force of attraction in accordance with the Lenz Law (Section 7.4). This force must be far more than the weight force according to calculations [35]. Therefore, attempts to estimate the UFO mass by means of measuring the depth of a track, about which was said by F.Yu. Ziegel in his lecture of 1st of July 1976, lead to the exaggerated result.
3. Several authors informed about the unstable liquid on the bottom of “landing imprints” that was also noted by F.Yu. Ziegel in his lecture of 1st July 1976. The supposition is that this liquid would be the remainder of material of a temporary detail (a tripod or bedding) which was valid for one application only during the landing and which had no enough time to be evaporated immediately after the command for the detail to be annihilated. Inasmuch as the initial material would be the air gases and especially the water steam in air (Section 10.3, 1st story) then the enigmatic liquid would be simply the water which had no time to be evaporated.
4. The great value of the residual magnetism of ground on the place of former UFO landing would be the result of acting of the strong and quickly changing magnetic field without its direction change. Somebody also said about the stop of the mechanism of the watch at the place possibly because of the great residual magnetism too.
5. The unusual physical and chemical properties of the ground from “the landing imprint” may be explained also with the action of the intensive and rapid change of the value of the UFO magnetic field while landing.
6. The dried ground, dried plants oh the place of landing, and carbonized roots, stalks, sprouts may be considered as the consequence of the curl currents from same changing magnetic field action.
7. Killed and dried insects, “sterilized” ground, on which nothing grows many years (experiments are described [7]) may also be the same result of the action of quick changing of the intensive magnetic field.
8. The crumbled up ground within “the landing imprint” may be explained as the action of the great value of curl currents induced in the ground. The internal distributed forces from these currents can create this effect, especially because of the low mechanical firmness of the ground.
9. The absence of radio-activity at “landing imprints” means that such a technology is scarcely used by UFO. It is not astonishing because nuclear technology is “ecologically dirty”. At the same time, UFOs may belong to the old civilizations with rational organization. Designs in sections 6.1 and 6.2 also need no use of radio-activity, including the energy source.
10. The immersion of UFO onto the water and its ascent from within the water, that was observed (the 1st narration in Section 10.3), may be evidently owing to the absence of any changes of the geomagnetic field at passing through the water surface. The field value and direction is the same above and below the water surface. Physical principles described in chapters 5-7 evidently work everywhere.
11. The steam generation when UFO passes through the water surface may be explained as the water heating with curl currents from the magnetized body motion because the ocean water has the enough electric conductivity.
11.5. The Influence onto the Surrounding Medium and Other Objects
1. The noiseless movement and the absence of the shockwave may be understood as the laminar and well-ordered air flow around the strongly magnetized body (Section 7.2). The energy consumption for the object movement inside this flow is supposed to be relatively small.
2. The radio-wave impulse from radar is not always received back although it is probably reflected by UFO. The cause may be the refraction of the radio-wave in the dense layer of oxygen which is attracted to the UFO surface (Section 7.2) because the oxygen is the paramagnetic gas. The second cause would be the transparency of an object.
3. UFO acts as a gigantic permanent magnet. It would stop distantly a mechanism which contains moving metallic details especially of steel.
4. There are about 200 known kinds of galvanic-magnetic effects. To list them here is not purposeful. One may pay attention onto several ones which are provoked with the intensive constant magnetic field of UFO. The disturbance of work of electronic devices is the first (Section 7.5). Two others are below.
5. The temporary extinguishing of incandescent lamps, what was narrated by eye-witnesses, may occur because of the Hall Effect (Section 7.5).
6. The spark ignition of the internal combustion engines may be interrupted in the case of UFO approaching (plural eye-witnesses’ testimonies). The interruption of the electric arc between two electrodes within gas by means of constant magnetic field is widely used in the electrical engineering and it is known as “the magnetic blowing”. With accordance to the calculation [35], the spark of ignition in the internal combustion engine may be interrupted at the induction of the external constant magnetic field about 0.04 Tesla. Such a value of the magnetic induction would be, for example, from the object with 1,600 Tesla on its surface at the distance about 2 kilometers.
Diesel, jet-propulsion, gas-turbine and similar engines, which have no sparking ignition, would be stopped by the constant magnetic field of UFO only at a relatively small distance owing to induced curl currents by analogy to item 3.
7. The temporary paralysis of people near UFO may have the following explanation. Passing of the impulse along nervous fibers has the electro-chemical nature and it may be blocked with the intensive constant field similarly to the Hall Effect action. The paralysis of legs and arms would be earlier than the loss of the vision and consciousness because of longer nervous fibers (Section 7.5).
8. The disturbance of animals may be because of the action of the magnetic field onto the nervous system.
9. All previous effects were from the constant field influence or from its changing. The next concluding one is supposed to be from the alternating component. The radio interference from the UFO approach may be created by its switching system for the electronic control of the energy circulation between the propulsor and the energy store device, including and especially because of the angular position stabilization. The frequency about thousands of Megahertz shows the high perfection of these systems, although the certain loss of energy for the radio-wave radiation is scarcely avoided.
11.6. Concluding Remarks
1. All items in sections 11.2-11.5 concerned UFOs of the spheroid shape which was called “round” for the brevity. Such UFOs were met in 2nd and 3rd stories in Section 10.3. The suitable theoretical model and resembling physical principles were considered in chapters 5-7. These UFOs constitute the majority that may be seen in the “classification” in Fig. 4.4.
At the same time, the second kind of shape exists: “long cylinder“, “cigar”, “dirigible-like”, “cucumber” in the upper part of the table in Fig, 4.4. They may be called “long” for the brevity. Similar UFOs are described in the 1st and concluding 4th stories in Section 10.3. They show the evident difference not only of the shape but also of the substantial probable features.
“Long” UFOs are not luminous at night and therefore they are less visible. They were viewed while landing extremely rarely and their “landing imprints” are unknown. Possibly, they usually avoid landing on the ground or water. Their parallel flight together with human’s aircrafts is not typical, including the presence at military actions. “Long” UFOs also avoid the approach of military aircrafts (Section 12.3).
All enumerated features of “long” UFOs hint that their working magnetic field may be substantially less than that of “round” ones. On the one hand, the initial energy value for the working field is also less and it is supposed to be the main advantage. Their ecologic purity is supposed to be better. On the other hand, their protection would be worse.
The “long shape” is not suitable for the dipole force creation. The example of design of the similar propulsor is on Fig. 4.8. It was intended only for the cross-force exertion in the geomagnetic field (Section 5.5).
Fig. 4.8. The example of the scheme of the magnetic propulsor with the form of “long cylinder” for cross force receiving in the geomagnetic field [36].
Unfortunately, the superconducting pipe 1 (Fig. 4.8), through which superconductors of the coil 2 are wounded, cannot theoretically give the screening effect, that was confirmed later in the experiment. The substitution of the superconducting material of the screen 1 onto ferromagnetic one gives partially the needed effect. It was verified experimentally, but other proportions of the device are in need, taking into account the modern materials [34].
The unsuccessful invention [36] might not be mentioned but the author saw 9th of October 2004 in the sky the analogous design to be realized (Section 10.3, 4th story). The electrodynamic cross force 11 (Fig. 4.8) is perpendicular to the direction 8 of the external geomagnetic field. It would be imagined to consist of two components: the horizontal propulsion force 9 and the vertical force 10 which either could be summarized with the aerodynamic lift force (Fig. 4.8) or could be summarized with the weight force.
However, the shape of UFOs 9th of October 2004 excluded the application of the aerodynamics. What would the second component be instead of the dipole force to provide the total control together with the cross force? Better of all, it would coincide with the external field direction and therefore… the magnetic monopole would be in need!
Obviously, to consider the magnetic monopole in Chapter 5 was inappropriate because it was not found and they decided that P.A.M. Dirac was not right.
However, what is not present in nature that would be created artificially. The cross force (Section 5.5) and the distributed vision (Section 8.2) are expressive examples. The partial or palliative solution in a round-about way, something asymmetry of configuration, keeping the curl character of the magnetic field and without the exact “monopole”, would not contradict to physical laws.
If it is possible, then the geomagnetic field direction would have no importance for the total control of the electrodynamic force of propulsion of a “long” UFO. Therefore, it is not astonishing that “long” UFOs do not need to move along the zigzag trajectory. It was not just seen during their flights!
So, the “long” shape of UFO seems to be advantageous for the planet magnetosphere, but it may not be advantageous in the far cosmic space. “Round” shape seems to be more complex but universal. It is shortly concerned below.
2. “Round” shape seems to be connected with the dipole force using. The principle of action of such a propulsor is illustrated in Fig. 4.9. Superconductors 17 of the current loop are intended for exerting of the dipole force and they constitute the surface of torus.
Fig. 4.9. The schematic picture of the example of the magnetic propulsor for the creation of the controlled electrodynamic force of arbitrary value and direction in the geomagnetic field [37].
The relation of the diameter of torus to its pipe thickness is equal to 5 in Fig. 4.9 but this relation is advantageous to be more in order to reduce the initial energy for the working magnetic field creation. The form of torus, of course, is not obligatory for UFOs, but the current loop must be either within the surface of spheroid or outside of it as ring belt that may be seen on several pictures of “the classification” in Fig. 4.4.
The “cross force” component (Section 5.6) in this scheme is received owing to the screen 14 (Fig. 4.9). Its length 15 is needed to be very small because of the great value of super-current for the dipole force creation. Unfortunately, the superconducting screen 7 in this invention [37] is also the mistake and this scheme is not able to work. However, it gives the first representation about the propulsor structure, about the principle of the propulsion and it may be the prototype for further inventions.
3. The human’s face is considered in the criminal law to be identified, when there is the coincidence of 17 or more features. We have totally about 40 features of UFOs in sections 11.2-11.5 which coincide with the theoretic model of the magnetic vehicle (chapters 5-7). The list may not be complete. Although the coincidence is not quite convincing everywhere, nevertheless the old idea about the magnetic propulsion of UFOs has the high degree of probability to be confirmed in such a way.
Is it possible for people to understand technologies which would be millions of years older than our ones? We need the help and support from the English philosopher William of Ockham (1285-1347): the simplest explanation has the most chance to be right.
On the one hand, the relative simplicity of the physical principle increases our chance to understand the fact of its application by UFOs, although in the first approximation and schematically. On the other hand, the simplicity is the important component of the reliability and longevity of engineering facility possibly during millions of years.
However, could the irremovability of the main physical principle during millions of years mean the certain stagnation? We got accustomed that the engineering facilities are changing as in kaleidoscope during only tens of years!
The goose feather was substituted with the pen, then with the fountain-pen. The gramophone and its portable variant were substituted with the record player, then with the laser player and after all with the USB flashes only while the human individual life duration! Our development, as Von Horner said [50], is feverish.
The diesel locomotive followed after the steam locomotive, the electric locomotive came soon. The airplane and helicopter followed after the aerostat and dirigible, the rocket came after that. All was also during one individual life. The time less than one century passed when it became clear that the rocket is not perfect and it is unsuitable for interstellar flights. What are reasons to think that the magnetic propulsion can be everlasting and it cannot be substituted with anything during millions of years?
There are no known processes which would be more economic and long-term than quantum effects. In that case, the further long-time progress of science and technology would continue as perfecting the described simplest arrangement which excludes the moving details. Only electrons in superconductors move.
It is difficult to believe that aliens could build super-light systems with the magnetic induction of thousands of Tesla on their surface. Probably, millions of years of the evolution in the cosmic space were used by UFOs effectively. To hurry was not in need.
Undoubtedly, the physics of UFO conveyance could not be known fully. At the same time, there is no absolute mystery. “The engine for the interstellar spaceship” may be understood in general features and its simple copy may be reproduced by people in the future. But it is the only physical and engineering side of the matter.
The creation of the artificial intelligence by people is evidently not far. It helps to admit that every UFO may be the cybernetic person (Chapter 9). There is another side of the matter: questions, it may be said, of the humanitarian character. Who are they? From where and when did they come? What are they doing here and are they dangerous for us? Author’s opinion and suppositions are briefly expounded in the concluding Chapter 12.
Chapter 12. Signs of UFOs Activity
12.1. Hypotheses about the UFOs Origin
“The Wikipedia” in English considers only Extraterrestrial Hypothesis (ETH) of the UFO origination [71] but without explanations why “terrestrial” one has been rejected. At the same time, the old ideas have the historical significance and they might be interesting together with causes of the rejection. Besides, these former popular hypotheses continue to be present in the Russian Wikipedia [81]. So, their brief estimation is purposeful and in the same order.
Hypotheses of the natural origination explained UFOs as usual known phenomena: celestial bodies, meteors, birds, mirages, marsh gas fires, a paper or polyethylene film carried with a wind, a dust, etc.
Of course, a certain fraction of eye-witnesses’ observations may sometimes represent one of enumerated objects. At the same time, the object look and conditions of the observation can exclude all natural causes. Please, attempt to explain in such a manner one of four stories from the Section 10.3. But only few partial examples were described there. Thousands of cases of the similar observation from the relatively small distance are in literature. Hypotheses of the natural origination do not explain many cases of UFO observation.
Psycho-social hypotheses suppose the myths creation and also the imagination and hallucinations, especially of madmen, drug addicts and drunkards, to be the main source of stories about UFOs. Inasmuch as the last ones are undoubted and evident, that was said about previous hypotheses, the psycho-social conception does not work against UFOs themselves, but it remained as the explanation of human-like figures near landed “flying saucers”, that is, “pilots”, “humanoids”, “aliens”, “newcomers”, etc.
It was said about this matter in Section 10.2, that these stories of eye-witnesses are not plural, but they have also to be considered and explained, although the only a small part of them would be truthful. One possible solution of this problem is proposed farther in the Section 12.5.
Hypotheses of the creation by people considered always the intelligible variant of a disk with jet or rocket engines which had the aerodynamic lift force in the air similarly to an aircraft. The first vehicle of such a scheme was built and tested by Romanian engineer Henri Coanda in Paris in 1910 (!) but testing was unsuccessful.
It was not astonishing because the disk form has bad aerodynamic quality. The rational aerodynamic form is a wing. Testing of the disk-like aircraft BI-234 with the propeller engine in the USSR in 1937 confirmed this conclusion.
However, the saga about the disk aircraft turned out to be attractive. When the Second World War was finished, publications appeared that German engineers, whose surnames were pointed, tested the flying disk in 1944. Having the supposed speed to 2,000 kilometers per hour (!), this vehicle ought to carry the nuclear weapon. The small experimental nuclear explosion was made by Germans in 1944. It is the proved historical fact. It gave to the version about the disk aircraft the similarity of the truthfulness.
It is well known, that working out the supersonic aviation is the long-time difficult process with the plural researches, projects and testing. Sometimes it may be accompanied with disasters and the death of pilots. But there are no authentic photographs, films or any signs of the engineering documentation for the German disk. Besides, it was the end of the lost war when everything collapsed. The version seems to be very doubtful.
The suspicions existed after the Second World War that the USA or the USSR continues to develop the German project. However, to keep in secret anything, including the military nuclear technology, is difficult because of the espionage (examples are known). If the flying disk were successful, it should be developed and used.
Concerning the possibility to create the full scale magnetic vehicle, main principles of which are described in chapters 5 and 6, it may be said that it is impossible up today because of the absence of needed materials and technologies. Its theory may still be built. Experiments with active model are unknown.
However, would our predecessors in antiquity make anything impossible for us today? Are legendary atlants flying by means of their vehicles up today?
But firstly, the modern archeology has no information about such a civilization. It is quite a myth. Secondly, could people of the stone or bronze age create the engineering, which is not achievable in our days, without the documentation (the writing language was absent), without education, physical knowledge, without needed materials, technologies, and so on, using only the magic?
So, the creation of UFOs by people seems to be improbable. It could not be made on the Earth in general. This important conclusion will be used here soon.
At the same time, we begin to sink into fiction and mysticism. As if there is nothing better, four of such “hypotheses” exist and they will be characterized just now. For a start, if our predecessors did not create flying saucers, then could our descendants make it and could they visit us?
Hypothesis about travels in the time supposed flying saucers to be a kind of the machine of time. This combination of words was thought up by the writer Herbert Wells. In order to convince, that our descendants visit us, the mathematical mysticism was used. However, the time is the fundamental quantity and to be in different moments simultaneously is impossible.
We know almost nothing about UFOs, but their stay in the same time with us is just clearly obvious.
Ultra-terrestrial hypothesis supposes that the certain “parallel” civilization would exist somewhere near us, let us admit, on the ocean bottom or under the ground. Their vehicles are seen sometimes and themselves could percolate into the human society as ultra-creatures.
Nobody gave the explanation, why there are no material signs from this civilization during many years of coexistence. Besides, such a parallel civilization would use the common zone of inhabitation with us without any conflict.
Please, imagine ourselves in the analogous situation. Let us live in Moon bowels or on the Earth ocean bottom as some invisible beings. The planet surface has been given to backward people. We wait thousands of years and we observe from our flying saucers how they annihilate resources, kill the living world and the zone of inhabitation which is common with our own one… Surely, it is difficult to believe in spite of the authority of John Keel and Igor Bunich who were supporters of this idea.
“Supernatural hypotheses” of the UFOs origination demand the belief but not the proof as all supernatural. If UFOs are intelligent and smarter than human, then they would be unknowable as all supernatural. But the difference is that UFOs may be partially knowable because they must submit to physical laws.
Besides, the combination of words “supernatural hypothesis” has no logic. According to “Wikipedia”, the hypothesis is the statement, which would be somehow grounded and potentially verified. But the supernatural cannot be grounded or verified. Strictly speaking, such “hypotheses” ought to be excluded from the list. They would be called “the popular belief”.
Unfortunately, supporters of “supernatural explanations” have the tendency to the emotional approach and to using the non-authentic information.
Hypothesis about the UFOs origination in parallel worlds does not ground, what these parallel worlds are and where they are located. It is usually the simple game of words. It is not proved and therefore it is similar to the supernatural direction of thought.
“Parallel worlds” are sometimes imagined in the space of more dimensions than our three-dimensional one. One has to understand that spaces of more dimensions are not real and they are only the mathematical abstraction.
The contradiction exists between the psycho-social hypothesis, which considers the human-like figures near landed UFOs to be the myth, and the majority of subsequent hypotheses, which are based namely on these narratives of eye-witnesses.
Objectively, we see that listed hypotheses of the UFOs origination are indeed not convincing enough.
Extra-terrestrial hypothesis (ETH) of the UFOs origin is generally accepted and it is only one for consideration in the Wikipedia in English [71]. The disadvantage is that the concept is “the most complex one” or “the Ockham’s Blade” did not deal with it. But there is no other way because listed hypotheses are unconvincing.
At the same time, the article [71] contains several different points of view, including even the statistic of the public opinion. It was seen in Chapter 9 that the author is also the supporter of ETH and his voice may be joined to the discussion but on two conditions below.
Firstly, the term “extra-terrestrial” seems to be too wide. On the one hand, UFOs were not undoubtedly created by people. It was seen from the brief review above. On the other hand, planets of the Solar System are evidently out of participation. Therefore, the Solar System must be removed from the consideration. Though UFOs are present here, but we speak about their origin which was not here.
So, the term would be narrowed to the Galaxy origin of UFOs. It was said [71] that UFOs could come also even from other galaxies. Although such a variant is theoretically possible, but distances between galaxies are substantially more than their dimensions (Sections 2.5 and 2.6). The scale of our Milky Way Galaxy would be quite enough for the repeated UFO origination (Sections 3.1, 3.2 and 9.5).
Secondly, to consider UFO as the transport facility of some aliens under their control would not be right. Aliens would scarcely overcome interstellar distances (Section 4.4). Moreover, the probability of their existence in the Milky Way Galaxy simultaneously with us may be supposed to be near zero (Chapter 3). It was noted also that mechanical over-loadings of UFOs are too great for living passengers (Section 10.1).
The cybernetic mind of UFOs is supposed to be much vast and perfect than that of living beings. UFOs may not need a control of any living intelligence in general, according to opinions in Section 8.5. Only their ancestors were created undoubtedly by aliens in the past. Therefore, the presence of UFOs may confirm indirectly the aliens existence somewhere in the past. In that case, UFOs represent the cybernetic continuation of the parental civilization of living intelligence.
Finally, we might see near us several “representatives” from different space civilizations of UFOs (Section 9.5) with the long-time mission of the scientific information collection. The character and volume of this information is difficult to imagine. At the same time, they are located supposedly in the far cosmic space everywhere whereas people occupy only the negligible region: the surface of the little planet. Such a demarcation excludes even a thought about a territorial controversy. Notice, please, that the ultra-terrestrial hypothesis cannot boast about such a demarcation.
It may be said about undoubted signs of the UFOs activity in the following directions: the interest to the people military actions and weapons, a reaction while human attacks, landings for some geophysical researches or for demonstrations before humans. In passing, each item from four enumerated ones may be evidence of the UFOs intelligence.
These items are illustrated below with several known examples from literature and then concluded with suppositions about interrelations and politics. To build conclusions only on a few versions, which are subjectively chosen, does not mean, of course, the strict analysis with the vast statistics, but it would be appropriate in the small popular scientific research.
12.2. The Interest in Military Actions
People were always at war but they never paid attention to somebody’s observation. Warriors of Alexander the Great named UFOs “sky bucklers” because their own bucklers were of the same circle shape. Humans began to suspect the observation from the side of UFOs only when they had invented own flying vehicles.
The dirigible “Zeppelin” appeared in October of 1912 above the English fortification of the Sheerness near the entrance into the river Thames. It flew over the Thames outfall with the speed approximately 90 kilometers per hour and it disappeared in the direction to the English Channel. The dirigible was taken for the German reconnaissance vehicle.
However, the German official statement of 26th of February of 1913 was that enigmatic air ghosts above England could not have the German origination. Really, first 4 of such German dirigibles at beginning of 1913 had the speed substantially less than 90 km/h and the achievable duration of their flight was less than 24 hours. Therefore, they could not reach the South England [23].
The similar information was published in Russian newspapers in March of 1913. The unknown flying vehicle, possibly an Austrian dirigible, illuminated at night several stations of the South-West Railway with a floodlight [23]. However, airplanes and dirigibles in 1913 could not fly at night because the air navigation of that period allowed using only the day time.
These dirigible-like ghosts in 1912-1913 might be just “long” UFOs.
The Second World War may be characterized by the mass application of aviation. The information appeared about UFOs to be flying together with human aircrafts and to be present while great battles.
One of most popular examples is the night raid of the English air squadron of strategic bombers above the German town of Essen 25th of March 1942. The aircraft, where the chief-pilot was Polish captain Roman Sobinski, climbed to 5,000 meters after leaving the German air space. It is the most amazing detail why UFO flied up to the aircraft after its task execution. Was it the mistake or being late?
Inasmuch as this UFO, which had the bright yellow luminescence, flied up to the aircraft from behind at the distance 150 meters, the captain commanded to fire at the dangerous object but without any reaction of the last one. The object climbed and moved away with the incredible speed after 15 minutes of the flight together with the aircraft [23].
The necessity appeared at the concluding stage of the Second World War to wipe whole towns off the face of the earth but the nuclear weapon was not still ready. The military task was executed by huge aviation forces that attracted UFOs.
The interesting well-known version is several UFOs appearance above the German town Schweinfurt 14th of October 1943 [23]. 8th air army of the USA (700 strategic bombers “flying fortress”) with 1,300 American and English fighters of the escort had to wipe off the face of the earth plants for ball-bearings producing. The group of big bright disks was quickly approaching just at the moment when the air army was exactly above the object of destruction and 10 minutes earlier before the German fighters attack. UFOs came under fire of more than 700 machine-guns but there was no reaction from them and they moved away quietly.
The British major R.T. Holmes handed in to the command a report which was directed by the British War Department 24th of October 1943 to the Intelligence Service with the request about the urgent investigation. The answer was after 3 months that these objects were not German or anybody’s terrestrial flying vehicles but they were UFOs. This combination of words and the notion itself arose in the previous 1942 year.
If the major R.T. Holmes had reported the exact number of those bright disks, then it would be possible to imagine the number of UFO civilizations near us or their associations (unions), between which the interchange of information could not take place. Every association or union would have the “own representative” for this event observation and recording.
The interest of UFOs to the test and application of new kinds of weapons is also observed. There was the registration film where the unknown spherical object was turning around the first in history ballistic supersonic rocket V-2 while testing 12th of February 1944 on the secret German testing ground Kummersdorf. The speed of the object was determined as 2,000 kilometers per hour, that is, far more than this rocket start speed [23]. Is the number 2,000 km/h not occasional in the saga about “the German disk vehicle”? (Section 12.1, hypotheses about the creation by people)
The dark object on the control panoramic film of ruins of the town Hiroshima just after the nuclear bombardment was the typical UFO. The photograph was published in the journal “UFO News”.
Joint flights of UFOs together with aircrafts during The Second World War were so plural that pilots ceased to be afraid of them and named them “fiery fighters” or “cabbage heads” (among Germans). At the same time, governments of the warring countries organized in 1942 special secret services to register the activity of UFOs which were usually considered as the potential enemy reconnaissance vehicles [23].
The typical example was the UFO flight 5th of July 1943 around positions of troops which were ready to the Kursk Battle. The report to the German Command qualified it as the Soviet reconnaissance vehicle. The analogous report to the Soviet command qualified it as the German vehicle. The information and drawing are in Observations of UFOs in the USSR [58].
The German artillery preparation was appointed on 3 hours of night 5th of July 1943. The Soviet Command had known about it from the secret service dispatch which had been earlier translated by means of the radio communication from the Switzerland during 10 hours. The UFO could know it possibly owing to the radio intercept but from where did it know that the soviet artillery preparation has to begin earlier?
Truly, the UFOs possession of information about human affairs is amazing. At the same time, the Kursk Battle was crucial for the war and it was the grandiose from the human point of view.
UFOs are sometimes present not only while military actions and tests but also when other tragic events occur. Videos were published of UFOs observing the Twin Towers attack by terrorists 11th of September 2001 [113]. The possession of information about extraordinary events better, than the State Security Service can, is amazing. It is also necessary to be in readiness at a distance which allows to arrive on the place during a few minutes. Probably, the Earth magnetosphere, which is more vast than the Earth surface and atmosphere, gives this possibility (Section 6.3 and Figure 2.15).
What would attract UFOs to great battles and to military objects? It may be thought, on the one hand, it would be the highest possible level of the human technology which is achieved in weapons. On the other hand, it may be the human aggressiveness which is inherited from animals [12]. It would be curious for the cybernetic mind which itself might be deprived of such an inheritance. In any case, the human tendency to kill a great number of people may provoke the UFOs curiosity.
Human wars have usually the aim to deprive the political opponent of the freedom, ownership, resources, territory, to foist own ideology or religion on him and so forth [115]. Supposing UFOs as the opponent of humanity, one may think that no one of these things would be “the casus belli”, taking into account their supposed “way of life” (Section 9.5). Moreover, both habitats (cosmic space and planet surface) are different. “Star wars” exist probably only in the imagination of ignorant authors or to tickle nerves of the public. None the less, some rare conflicts are known.
12.3. Conflicts
There is the vast information about UFO accompaniment to military and passenger aircrafts without conflicts. The last occurs only when human’s aircrafts attack UFOs. What was the result? Short publication (one page) [117] considered about 20 cases of human attacks against UFOs. The conclusion was made: there are no shot down UFOs but there are brought down aircrafts. It was noted also that the real number of cases would be more because of probable secret ones.
However, several latest publications appeared in the Russian internet not only about shot down UFOs but also even with their photographs on the ground! Please, imagine what the level of requirements must be to the trustworthiness of such information…
One may suspect that the life many years under the state misinformation could lead to the newest private misinformation owing to the computer animation. Nobody could bring down UFO 70 years but there are tens of brought down UFOs during 2017 only!
Let us return to undoubted historical versions from the heritage of F.Yu. Ziegel [58]. The test pilot Arcady Ivanovitch Apraksin lifted in the air the next in turn aircraft from the aerodrome “Kapustin Yar” near the lake Baskunchak 16th of June 1948. The course was to the South, the flight was above the complete cloudiness on the height 10,500 meters.
One half of an hour had passed after the flight on the course, when
A.I. Apraksin caught sight of the vehicle in the form of a cucumber which was moving on the lateral course with descent. The shaft of light issued from it in the opposite direction to its flight. Being on the constant radio communication with the base, the pilot informed about it. He received the answer that the strange vehicle was observed on the radar and he received also the order to compel the vehicle to landing.
The vehicle did not submit to. The next order from the base was to open the fire at the object when it would not again submit to the demand. When the distance became about 10 kilometers, rays from the object fanned out and touched his aircraft. The pilot was temporary blinded and then he revealed all the electrical equipment of the aircraft control to become unserviceable and the aircraft engine to be stopped.
The vehicle made the swift jerk upward. The test pilot A.I. Apraksin landed the aircraft by the way of gliding flight without the crash.
The version has intriguing contradictions. Who could catch sight of the strange vehicle earlier: the pilot or the radar operator on the base? Why the weapon was on board in the test flight? One may suspect that to meet the vehicle was not occasion but the pilot made the premeditated flight by order to deal with it. Besides, later he was informed about the observation of the same vehicle by other pilot who called it “dirigible-like” one.
The second important circumstance is that the American pilot Thomas Mantell perished 5 months earlier, 7th of January 1948, in the result of approaching other UFO near the Fort Knox [25]. Two versions were considered: the exceeding the admissible height of flight with the loss of control (by the experienced pilot) and the unsuccessful attack (?) on the experimental reconnaissance balloon.
The third possibility exists. The Mantell’s attack was the first known one and UFOs could not yet defend themselves carefully. The life of Thomas Mantell would probably become the price for the UFOs consequent ability to neutralize human attacks without the death of pilot and the crash of an aircraft.
Let us return to A.I. Apraksin. He was transferred to the Arctic aviation and he heard from other pilot about the observation of an analogous object. It is amazing that A.I. Apraksin met the same enigmatic vehicle secondarily 6th of May 1949 [58] while testing the new aircraft again!
The vehicle moved substantially higher than the aircraft. When it began to descent, Apraksin went to approach. (It was not noted whether the order was received or the pilot undertook the approach himself). The shaft of light was directed again from the distance 10-12 kilometers. Blinding came. The electric part of control equipment became unserviceable and the engine stopped. The new damage was that the frontal glass of the cockpit was injured and the depressurization had occurred with the loss of air.
A.I. Apraksin was successful again and he landed the aircraft owing to the gliding. However, the experienced test pilot and honored participant of the Second World War with plural rewards had been dismissed from flights in the next 1950. It might confirm the supposition that the order to attack UFO had been taken again and the event was defined as the order non-compliance.
The pilot was subjected to the force “medical treatment” in the mental hospital during half-year and after that he was declared to be the full invalid (first group). Finally, he met F.Yu. Ziegel and he became later the active member of the Ziegel’s circle of UFO study.
So, the kind of the laser weapon was demonstrated 10 years earlier than the laser radiation was discovered by people. However, the prompt was not used by scientists. But in what manner were the electric system and engine of the aircraft made unable to work? The probable hint seems to be received half a century later.
The retired general of Iranian Air Forces presented on the “Discovery Science Channel” in 2016 his video narrative. Being the pilot of a fighter, he was directed at night to attack the UFO which had the form of luminous yellow sphere. The narrator illustrated his story with the short computer-drawn film.
The pilot directed his “Phantom” exactly onto the object. However, the size of the last one was seen to be not changing, that is, it was flying before the aircraft with the same speed of 1,600 kilometers per hour. Its color did not change. (It may be thought, the speed of 1,600 km/h is not enough for changes of the physical process in the surrounding air in comparison with the rest state, the Section 11.2, item 6).
Suddenly, the object disappeared and immediately appeared in another place (explanation in Section 11.3, item 13).
The object fired simultaneously the shot at the aircraft with “the missile” which was drawn as the small sphere of the same yellow color of luminescence. Such a color gave evidence about the identical own magnetic field intensity as the UFO itself.
The missile was slowly approaching the aircraft along a broken trajectory. Evidently, the small copy of the UFO could approach in principle during one second as the UFO itself. It is obvious also that the luminescence of such “a missile” would not be seen by the daylight and its possible jump during 1 second could not then be seen by a pilot (for example, A.I. Apraksin), especially being blinded and shocked.
So, the failure of electrical equipment and engine of aircraft reported by A.I.Apraksin may have the simple explanation. The metallic rotor of the engine turbine would be stopped because of curl currents in the strong magnetic field, the spark ignition would be destroyed earlier already at a more distance (Section 7.5). The Hall Effect would cause the electrical equipment to be unable to work. All this did not lead to any residual defect for the solid commission findings.
Seeing this “missile” approach, the future Iranian general could understand that his death approached. The force demonstration by the UFO was effective. The pilot made the steep turn, which would be logical if the own missile had been already launched by him. The UFO moved away, decreasing in size with an amazing rapidity. (What did hinder do this, seeing the enemy preparation to a shot?)
Probably, the narrator pledged himself to keep silence about some secret details of his night attack. To fly exactly onto UFO would be necessary for making a shot or for launching a rocket and it might just compel the UFO to jump to the side. It is important for the conclusion, whether UFOs are aggressive as somebody want to think.
At the same time, the general could understand, owing to stories of Th. Mantell and A.I. Apraksin, if he knew them, the importance of this event in his life and the necessity to publish the information about it although partially, for what we ought to be grateful to him.
So, UFO may use the powerful laser ray and the intensive constant magnetic field both own one and of its small round luminous “missiles” similar to ball lightning. Is it the genuine weapons?
These things seem to be their routine equipment but not the special one as weapons. The main weapon is, of course, their mind. Do they use their power always for only own protection or they are aggressive and dangerous?
The last is the opinion of the Orthodox Church. Several priests, including the Patriarch of the Whole Russia [94], appeared in internet with their declarations and papers. UFOs were represented as the dark force or the devilish delusion. There are cases of their hostile actions against people.
F.Yu. Ziegel said in his lecture 1st of July 1976 that the weakness of the opponent’s argumentation has the convincing force. It is quite suitable for the most expressive cases which are selected by priest Rodion [112]. Unfortunately, with all my respect to the opponent both in the narrow and in the wide sense, as the saying goes, “Plato is my friend but the truth costs more”.
The first in the chronological order in the paper [112] is the memorandum 26th of February 1942 to President F.D. Roosevelt from the general D. Marshall. 15 unidentified targets were fired at above Los Angeles. The battery made 1,430 shots. But the phrase in the memorandum, that no one object was shot down and no one serviceman was a victim, was not mentioned.
A.I. Apraksin’s stories are also defined as the UFO aggression [112]. Evidently, their fault was that they avoided to be shot down. UFO appearance 5th of July 1943 before the Kursk Battle is also mentioned although it did not do anything, except the observation.
“Two aircrafts “Starfighter” from 27th Squadron, which were armed with rockets, were sent 2nd of July 1956 to intercept the UFO in the environs of Attica (USA). “The flying saucer” responded to their approaching with the impulse of the radiation weapon onto the nearest interceptor. The aircraft had been blazed, the pilot and the radar operator threw themselves out with parachutes” (my translation from Russian).
The aircraft “Lockheed F-104 Starfighter” is the supersonic one. It is possible to leave it by means of catapulting but not by throwing out. Besides, it is the single-seated aircraft, that is, without the second member of crew or the special operator of radar. The inaccuracy makes the version to be not authentic enough. Moreover, this event would represent only the reaction against the human attack and it could not be considered as the UFO aggression.
“Colombia, Anolaima, 4th of July 1968. Ancecio Bermudes gave the signal with the pocket lantern to the silvery object, which flew over his farm at a small height. The vehicle answered with the flash to the signal given. Bermudes was hospitalized 6th of July in the Bogota, being in the heavy state, and he died because of the influence of the gamma-radiation” (my translation from Russian). The version is supposedly taken from the book of John Keel [21], to which we shall return later.
It is one of the rarest cases of the UFO attack on the unarmed lone man without a serious cause. The demands to the truthfulness of the story have to be high enough. As a minimum, doubtful details must not be present. Here is just the opposite.
The clinical picture of the radiation sickness allows to judge only about the amount of the radiation dose but approximately because of the different individual receptivity. At the same time, the physical character of the radiation can usually be found out only from circumstances of the accident but not from the state or analyses of the ill himself. Why was it concluded that namely gamma-radiation was applied? Could the strong magnetic field of UFO be the indeed cause of the trauma?
If UFO had flown at low height that might be rarely, the trauma would be because of its intensive constant magnetic field and the flash of light would not be some signal but rather the influence of this field on human brain. It would not be the malicious attack but a trivial traffic accident (“he was hit by a car”) that occurs on the planet Earth in dozens every day.
There are 7 billion of people. What does the attack on the lone unarmed Colombian farmer give? If UFOs wanted to annihilate the humanity, they would have done it 70 thousand years ago when there were only several tens of people because of catastrophic volcanism.
Further and concluding episodes of the paper [112] confirm the known fact: to be near UFO is dangerous in general. UFOs themselves may not interrupt quickly their mission and move away immediately or provide the full safety for a curious eye-witness. It is not obligatory to approach them.
UFOs turned out to be the tempting candidate for the enemy image. It seems to be advantageous for somebody. Different misfortunes are suspected to be made by ill-disposed UFOs specially [66]. However, in particular, the UFO presence during the Chernobil Catastrophe [66] does not mean that this accident was organized by it. People themselves kill other people in the amount of many millions (that excites the curiosity of UFOs, previous Section 12.2).
Please, imagine: what UFOs could do with us if they wanted to annihilate our civilization, being much developed, powerful, mental ones, and having the full predominance in the air and space. In general, we exist quietly and all planet evolution is inviolable owing to their accuracy and ecological culture. The theme is continued further in Section 12.6.
To annihilate humanity would be the unprecedented vandalism. Our communicable civilization is supposedly the only biological one today in the Milky Way after millions of years of the deficiency of the living intelligent population in general (Part One). It may be now the most interesting and unique Galaxy object of the natural origin for observation. At the same time, it occupies the negligible small place in the Galaxy.
On the contrary, the origin of UFOs cannot be natural but their ancestors could be originated artificially owing to certain aliens. The analogous situation was considered in Section 9.5.
It is evident, that attempts to qualify several rare accidents (which also are not always quite authentic) with UFOs as their aggressiveness, malice and their wish to foul against somebody, are naïve. The most dangerous enemy of people remains a human.
Finally, authentic conflicts with UFOs always happen obviously on people’s own initiative. It may be and should be avoided.
12.4. Research Landings
F.Yu. Ziegel had the catalog of UFO landings that was known from his lecture of 1st of July 1976 and confirmed while the personal conversation with the author. Probably, the number of registered landings after 40 years may reach several thousands.
Some statistics would be applied according to a selected principle. The simplest one is to classify their landings onto demonstrative ones (the next Section 12.5) and secret landings which become known owing to left landing imprints discussed here.
There are rare cases when an UFO is caught in sight on the place of landing (Section 10.3, 3rd story) but people usually did not see who made imprints. As a rule, UFOs avoid eye-witnesses while such a mission.
Landing imprints have usually round form that corresponds to UFOs own shape (Fig. 4.4). The vegetation in bounds of a fresh imprint is dried and sometimes even carbonized from within. It may be because of curl currents heating when the UFO magnetic field intensity changes. Insects have been killed. Nothing grows at the place for about 10 years. The ground inside a landing imprint acquires peculiar properties and the residual magnetism (Section 11.4).
Landing imprints would be the object for the routine scientific study. Data allow the research repeat. If you do not agree with somebody’s results, then you may come to the landing place with your devices, take a sample, and prove your points. However, the research would unlikely to be paid. Probably, it is the cause of the poverty of the published material.
The residual magnetism depends on ground properties. Magnetic tracks would have various forms, structure or “the magnetic portrait” which would give some useful prompts for imitation while building our own future magnetic vehicle.
F.Yu. Ziegel classified UFO landing imprints as having tracks of supports (landing on a tripod) or having no tracks (landing on a hull). Probably, both tripod and some bedding for a hull may be a kind of a temporary disposable thing annihilated back onto the initial material (possibly, the air gases and water steam, the 1st story in Section 10.3) during the start of ascent and after a special command when the mission is finished.
F.Yu. Ziegel informed also in his lecture 1st of July 1976 about attempts to determine the UFO mass, basing on the track depth value. Such the estimation of UFO mass (tens of tons) seems to be too high because of the great electrodynamic force (far more than the weight force) onto the ground during the process of “switching off” the own magnetic field after landing [35]. Curl currents provide the force of attraction with accordance to the Lenz Law (Section 7.4).
The mechanical and electric contact with the ground, especially at the bottom of natural water reservoirs, would be probably in need for measurements after landing. The similar means of the geological reconnaissance are used by people. The continual monitoring of the Earth Sphere structure and its evolution observation seems to be one of directions of the information collection by UFOs.
The author’s hypothesis about it was the main theme of the first letter to F.Yu.Ziegel in 1978. Inasmuch as geological processes are relatively slow, the data of the Earth sphere examination from different directions during tens of years would be processed jointly. The same mathematical problem is solved in the medical tomography.
It is not substantial from the mathematical point of view what object is examined: the human body or the Earth sphere. The method is based on the Radon Transform in the Integral Geometry. The more the directions number of the examination is (for example, with X-rays in medicine), the better is the image resolution.
The displacement of rocks during tens of years would be less than the resolving power of the method and it would not be therefore essential. The sound or electromagnetic waves may be used instead of X-rays in medicine. If the ultrasonic wave has speed 4 kilometers per second, then it would pass through the Earth Sphere during 52 minutes and the same duration would be for the return after the reflection from the opposite Earth surface.
Electromagnetic waves of low frequencies need a fraction of one second to pass through the Earth Sphere. Such the action demands several participants in different points on the Earth surface and there would be the plurality of variants of location on the ground. The hypothesis explains also the cause why so many measurements from different directions are necessary always.
The Earth Sphere has the stratified structure (Section 2.3). At the same time, it was never in the liquid state [41], although the upper layer of the Earth iron nucleus with thickness over 1,000 kilometers is always in the liquid state (Fig. 1.17). So, the rotation of the internal nucleus and of upper solid rocks of the mantle may be with slightly different angular speed, especially owing to the collision 4.36 billion years ago (Section 2.3) that would be one of causes of the geomagnetic field origin. This field is very important for the magnetic flight.
It is evident that the Earth Sphere is a very interesting object for the constant observation (monitoring). Besides, its structure may be similar to internal nuclei of great planets from Jupiter to Neptune (Section 2.3 and Fig. 1.16). These nuclei are less accessible because of great planets powerful covering with hydrogen and helium (99 % of the initial substance which was not almost separated and removed as on the Earth).
Contact experiments considered above are more advantageous than distant ones. But to have the taken sample of the material from deep layer of rocks is tempting no less. There was the super-deep well on the Kolsky Peninsula in the USSR. The purpose was to penetrate through the Earth’s crust till the upper mantle. This well reached the depth of 12 kilometers! The equipment became unserviceable at the lower depth because of the high temperature of rocks. What would UFOs do, having the analogous purpose?
Let us see the small information (one page) “The Earth is shot through” [49]. Our planet is covered with the net of seismic stations or laboratories which do the continued registration of shakings of the earth’s crust with the conformity to the common time. The joint processing of the results allows to determine the place of the oscillation source and the moment of generation. One of the main purposes was the detection of testing of the nuclear weapon.
The net gave the unexpected catch [49]. Eugene Gerrin together with collaborators from the Dallas University analyzed several millions (!) of seismograms from 1990 to 1993. They found out two extraordinary events. The peculiarity was that the oscillation source was not a point but it was the straight line through the Earth Sphere. The joint registration of the event from several stations might be interpreted (the Radon Transform!) as an unknown body passing through the thickness of the Earth Sphere, having the mass about one ton and speed near 400 kilometers per second! The total energy, which might provide seismic oscillations, was estimated approximately to be 4 kilotons in the trotyl equivalent.
The first body, or “the bullet”, entered the ocean near the Ellsworth Land in the Antarctica 22nd of October 1993. It came out from the Indian Ocean to the south from the India after 26 seconds. The length of the straight way through the Earth Sphere was about ten thousand kilometers (Fig. 4.10).
Fig. 4.10. Schemes of passing of unknown objects through the Earth Sphere [107].
One month later, 24th of November 1993, the second similar “missile” cut into waves of the Pacific Ocean near Australia (Fig. 4.10). 19 seconds later it flew out from water near Antarctica.
Eugene Gerrin with colleagues considered the enigmatic bodies to be the super-dense particles with the size of the human red corpuscle of blood. According to their opinion, these particles consist of upper, lower and strange quarks of the so called strange quark matter. Clots of the strange matter might be left after the Big Bang in which our Universe was supposedly born.
That is, we would have some new type of the relict radiation or the competitor of the notorious “dark matter”. The Nobel Prize was earlier deserved for the discovery of the photon relict radiation (Section 2.6).
It is still unknown whether Eugene Gerrin was so awarded but the ufology prize is undoubted. The speed of these two unidentified objects was about 400 kilometers per second. It is not typical of elementary particles especially left after the Big Bang but it is very suitable for UFOs (the milli-light speed!).
Moreover, the mass of the unidentified object about 1 ton is defined that nobody could still calculate for certain sure! And the value of the dissipated energy is defined too (about 4 thousand tons in the trotyl equivalent). The time moment and duration of the event had the accuracy to one second! True, it is amazing.
What could be imagined on the base of chapters 5-7? The one ton compact body could pass through rocks, which are in the plastic state, without the direct mechanical contact as through air or water, owing to the very great value of its own constant magnetic field (supposedly, thousands of Tesla), with the relatively small electrodynamic resistance force (Section 7.2). The 1,000 km layer of the liquid iron of the upper nucleus of the Earth seems to be even more advantageous than plastic solid rocks. Their radiation could be reflected.
Of course, only the schematic approximate view without details would be possible with some calculations; it is incomprehensible for us in other respects. The dream of J.S.Shklovsky (Section 9.1) about the travel to the Earth center would be realized 17 years earlier of his supposed term but not by humans…
All points of “bullets” coming into and out of the Earth crust were on the bottom of the ocean. The dry land occupies 1/3 of the Earth surface or approximately 1/2 with the addition of the shelf. 1/2 of considered points, that is, 2 from 4 would be on the dry land or shelf if events were occasional indeed. We could then find and research these tracks. Of course, so small number seems to be not enough for statistics and conclusions.
There are registrations of the same kind in archives for tens of years. It is interesting to decode them analogously for increasing the events number and to clarify whether points of coming into and out of the Earth Sphere are localized always on the ocean bottom or not. Consequently, are these events really of the occasional character? Would the strange matter seem to be stranger one?
12.5. Demonstrative Landings
One of the most important characteristics of equipment is the reliability. It is usually connected with the probability value of the equipment work without “the breakdown” or without the breakage during the certain interval of time.
To convey people onto the Moon surface according to the “Apollo” project “the Moon cabin” “Eagle” was applied. The probability of the reliable or faultless work of its equipment was set to be equal to 99.95 percent. In other words, 0.05 percent was only left for the probability of “the break down”, crash, breakage of “the Moon cabin”.
There were 7 firms (!) competed to gain the contract to build this vehicle. Everyone pledged itself to provide for the demanded reliability. The probability of the break down 0.05 percent means only one catastrophic breakage during 2,000 flights. It seems to be fantasy but all astronauts returned living although the actual number of flights was 200 times less.
The author of these lines found the number 0.007 in the abstract journal 15 years later after flights according to “Apollo” program. It was the considered percentage of the probability of the breakdown of the newest inhabited space module with the system for the human’s life support.
So, the probability of the break down was improved after 15 years to one sign after the point (one zero after point was added). Our development is feverish as Von Horner said [50]. However, when the progress is imagined to be even less in a hurry, what would the number of zeros be behind the point if the engineering might go forward for several millions of years? How much UFO flights would happen before our eyes for only one true crash?
At the same time, it is possible to guess that their structure has to be simple in principle (the Conclusion to Part Two). Nothing could be broken! The details of the breakage event are also beyond the limits of our comprehension. It may occur that the vehicle or the cybernetic person is instantly turned back into the initial gaseous state (Section 10.3, 1st Story) of primordially used materials…
One may suspect that the frequent accident rate of UFOs represents the same myth as their aggressiveness. Wonderful flying saucers overcame distances of tens of thousands light years during millions of years. They got into all kinds of messes that are out of our imagination… Finally, finding themselves above our quiet and harmless planet with the sufficient intensity of the natural magnetic field to be used, they become fall down from the sky as ripe pears from a tree!
Amazed inhabitants of the planet Earth receive in their hands some fragments of enigmatic details, scraps of unusual film. It is sometimes heard even about corpses of hapless pilots of UFO or crying “aliens”…
Narratives of people are not always the fantasy. We ought to trust for each other as far as possible. Let us seek one more initiator of the joke.
The matter is that the initiative does not belong to us. The overwhelming majority of situations connected with UFOs, which are seen by eye-witnesses, seem to be the premeditated demonstration. The purpose may be to turn our thoughts onto the direction wanted by them.
The saga about plural crashes might be provoked by UFOs themselves. One may rack his brains for a possible cause, for what it is in need for them. To shorten the moral distance, to stimulate the feeling of compassion, to misdirect us from the trace in logical excavations, to soften the possible future stress of people because of the insight into the common situation and who knows for what other thing…
The same scenario was repeated many times. Similarly to a traveler, whose carburetor of the car engine went bad while the way or the ignition became capricious, sad figures roam near their landed vehicle. Sometimes they have a tool in hands for some repairs. They may have a good mood and even can communicate with people. After that, they always fly away on their vehicle…
These figures, which are called “pilots”, “ufonauts”, “newcomers”, “humanoids”, “aliens”, “ultra-creatures”, “demons” and so on, interested people always because of the intriguing human-like exterior. The author was not exclusion. The initial thought was that these persons may be special humans, who are artificially born, brought up, and educated for the service for UFOs.
This idea had not to be expressed in a letter and the author reported it while his meeting with F.Yu. Ziegel 1st of November 1978. Felix Yurievich said that it was in need to write it in a form of theses in order to inform somebody. Fortunately, this was not made.
The idea was later understood by me as mistaken one. People are not suitable to be helpers for UFOs. They need the certain conditions for existence: air, water, food, sanitation, etc. Their life duration is relatively short, their health is not stable. The possibility of treason exists. (The situation with hypothetical aliens would be the same).
Concerning the presence of real aliens, it was discussed in Part One that the probability of their existence in the Milky Way Galaxy simultaneously with us may be considered in the modern science to be near zero, not to mention about the very close location in space for a possible visit.
Besides, they could not overcome the interstellar distances and to hold great dynamic over-loadings. To have the human-like exterior is also problematic (Section 1.6). Our atmosphere would not be suitable for them, etc. So we have the grounds to search for the more logical explanation.
Plural videos in the Russian internet of ugly “aliens”, “interrogations”, their “corpses”, etc., should not be, I hope, considered, being copies of own life situations, being not enough serious ones in that case, and taking into account also the possibility of the computer animation.
On the contrary, the artificial human-like “non-living” cybernetic person seems to be quite possible and it may be obviously free from all enumerated problems. It may be reliable absolutely. It can come on the surface of a planet or satellite with some atmosphere or without it but at the same time it does not need the spacesuit and helmet although all described is irrelevant because of absence there of eye-witnesses of the demonstration.
Plural “robots” are produced today often in the human-like shape. They are able “to see”, “to talk”, to fulfill different actions and operations, to play games, etc. Their exterior and face may be made to be very similar to human owing to the technology of waxwork figures.
At the same time, the artificial intellect is forecasted to appear in the middle of the current 21th century. Robots could be supplied with it. Voices are heard already about robots to be under the protection of law [10]. Therefore, they are imagined to be equal to people in the future (and they are expected to constitute partially the cybernetic prolongation of the mankind).
Please, multiply our listed achievements of robots by millions of years of the development of technologies of UFOs which are supposed to be very much aged. On the one hand, some purposeful construction with electronic mind for the current task fulfillment may be made, using improvised materials (1st Story in the Section 10.3).
On the other hand, the artificial intelligence may be put into shape from simple geometric one to copies of living beings, whereas these last ones can give birth to only the same species with the identical exterior.
One may see that to come to the thought about the expediency of the cybernetic intelligent human-like person is possible along different logical ways that would confirm the allure of this idea.
Having no other base, the physical and engineering thin film design from sections 6.2 and 9.3, which was supposedly spread onto the hypothetical UFOs structure, would be spread again onto the human-like body of the hypothetical cybernetic intelligent person which is probably sometimes demonstrated by UFOs.
Inasmuch as the similarity in exterior is only in need, the external surface is certainly necessary: clothes, dress, skin, face, eyes, hairs, etc. The multi-layer film structure may be supposed again. The internal volume is rational to be mainly empty, excluding, for example, some plastic stomach for the imitation of eating. (Joint eating plays the important role in human relations and intercourse). The body form may be maintained owing to super-currents within one of superconductive film layers. Being controlled by the electronic brain, these currents would give the electrodynamic distributed force instead of human or animal muscles and they would imitate the joints work.
The brain may be also within one of film layers instead of the head. Eyes must imitate the look and be either of the usual camera design or the vision may be rather distributed, using the external surface, similarly to the same supposed for UFOs (Sections 8.4, 6.2, and 9.3). Both variants would be jointly.
Levers and hinges, with which “Terminator” was equipped instead of the human skeleton, seem to be too massive and primitive human-like structure.
The exceptional lightness of the subject’s body is inherent in the described hypothetical scheme together with the ability to the great dynamic overloading. The parachute is not in need and to fly in air would be possible in common.
It is not purposeful to develop this hypothetical design in details because of its subjective imagination. Let us think about the brain work and memory source of the cybernetic intelligent person. It would be supposed to be rather some part of that of the “parental” UFO even to theoretical limit, that is, to the exact copy of its software and memory, if possible. (It is easier to imagine some possible for them than impossible).
Consequently, it turns out in the result that the supposed cybernetic person would be in fact… the UFO himself in the human-like look! Sorry, but who said “A”, that must say “B”. The possibility of cybernetics does not contradict to logic. Living creatures cannot to undergo such a transformation bit the electronic brain permits to be put into the body of arbitrary shape. There is no supernatural in it.
A spheroid with all its contents is suitable in the cosmic space (Chapter 9), the long cylinder or cigar shape is appropriate within a planet magnetosphere (Chapter 11), and to flirt with people the inhuman would be useful…
In that case, all listed figures, namely “UFO pilots”, “humanoids”, “ufonauts”, “aliens”, “newcomers”, “ultra-creatures”, “demons”, etc., would be understood as the cybernetic person, which would be in fact inhuman. Do not be upset! Nobody from the enumerated ones could be equal to UFO in the power of mind, the knowledge volume, and longevity…
This hypothesis explains who is seen by us instead of living beings which could not overcome cosmological distances and times (Section 4.2). On the contrary, the cybernetic civilizations, which would be the natural continuation of the “parental” civilization of aliens, would have the lifetime and possibilities quite enough for the mission (Section 9.5). The hypothesis also explains the existing plurality of exteriors of persons connected with UFOs. But only the exact human-like look may help them to keep incognito, dealing with people…
It is appropriate now to attempt to apply these considerations to known cases of the demonstration of human-like figures near landed UFOs. The author did not meet eye-witnesses who possessed such information. It does not mean, of course, that similar rare events did not happen. So, a few versions from the book [21] of J. Keel are reproduced and commented below.
John Alva Keel (1930-2009) considered the UFO problem alongside parapsychology, poltergeist, mysticism, and so on. He was consistent not always. On the one hand, he agreed that “the electromagnetism played a large role in many UFO events” (p. 43) [21]. On the other hand, he thought that “flying saucers may not actually exist as physical machines” (p. 163) [21]. Nevertheless, he always strove for the honesty and he undertook journalist investigations of versions, being sure that the authenticity could be improved in such a manner.
The collection of versions [21] gathered by J. Keel keeps importance independently from relation of himself, especially taking into account the present-day avalanche of mystifications in internet. Besides, he verified the eye-witnesses truthfulness owing to several details that they could not think up as he supposed, for example, the unnatural impeccable appearance of subjects demonstrated. So, three stories (pp. 157-165) [21] are reproduced and commented below.
A silvery metallic machine landed at 11 hours on Tuesday, April 18, 1961, outside of Eagle River, Wisconsin, in the yard {!} of the farm of a sixty-year-old Joe Simonton. Some kind of hatch slid opened in the upper part of the object and three dark-skinned men became visible.
The farmer estimated these men to be about 5 feet {152 centimeter} tall and between 25 to 30 years of age, clean-shaven. They wore clinging dark-blue uniform without helmets. None of them spoke during the following brief episode.
One man stepped to the hatch and held out a shiny bucket-like vessel and he indicated the wish to fill it with water. Simonton took it, filled it from his pump and returned it to the silent man. He noticed that the interior of the craft was black and that one man was busy at some kind of instrument panel, while the other was working at what seemed to be a stove. A pile of pancakes sat nearby. Simonton gestured at the pancakes, and the man with the bucket turned, picked up four of them, and handed them to him. The hatch slid shut, the object after that rose slowly into the air, moving off to the south.
Joe Simonton dispensed three pancakes among researchers and the fourth one he left for himself. “It tasted like cardboard”.
The event became widely known that was possibly the purpose of the demonstration. The eye-witness was successful and he carried out his task fully. People ought to be widely informed that UFOs are not independent or pilotless vehicles. People have to be convinced that UFOs are vehicles piloted by other people or aliens or ultra-creatures, who are human-like ones. They need water and food, use heat processes, and flying saucers are even equipped with stoves for cookery whereas, we suspect, only a small (near zero?) quantity of the electric energy is in need for the cybernetic (inhuman) person after the creation moment.
Their wish to stimulate our faith in all this sham is transparent enough. Real aliens, if they were here, should scarcely want to acquaint us with their livelihood in such a manner.
A fifty-six-year-old electronics engineer from Temple, Oklahoma, William “Eddie” Laxton was driving along a deserted stretch of Highway 70 near the Texas-Oklahoma border on his way to work at the Sheppard Air Force Base outside of Wichita Falls, Texas, where he teaches electronics, at about 5 hours 30 minutes 23rd of March 1966. Suddenly, a huge fish-shaped object loomed up in front of him. Laxton jammed on brakes and pulled to a stop about 50 yards from where the object was blocking the road at a 45-degree angle. He estimated the thing to be about 75 feet {23 meters} long and 8 feet {2.5 meter} wide.
Eddie’s friends and associates confirmed that he had always been blessed with a phenomenal memory {and one may also further understand that not only the memory, but also attention, coolness, self-control; it is evident he was not occasionally chosen for the witness role}.
He memorized many details which are not listed fully here but only necessary ones for the topic. The object had a tail structure with horizontal stabilizers that measured about 2.5 feet {75 centimeters} from the leading edge to the trailing edge. There were signs of the pilot presence. The object seemed to be lit up inside and it had a plastic bubble in front which was about 3 feet {0.9 meter} in diameter and the light through it was seen. Halfway along the fuselage there was a porthole about 2 feet {60 centimeters} in diameter. It was divided into four equal sections, and there was a small door below it, measuring about 4.5 feet high and 2.5 feet wide {135×75 centimeters}. This door was open and white light was pouring through it.
Laxton distinguished a group of earthly numbers painted vertically in black on the side of the fuselage: TL4768 or TL4168.
Directly outside the object a human-looking man was examining the underside of the craft with some kind of flashlight (Fig. 4.11). As Eddie climbed out of his car, this person turned, climbed up a metal ladder, and entered the door. When the door snapped shut, it sounded like when an aluminum door closes.
Fig. 4.11. The living person meets “non-living” one [56]. Author’s montage.
Laxton memorized many details of the pilot’s uniform and he described the pilot as weighing about 180 pounds {80 kilograms} and being 5 feet 9 inches tall {175 centimeters} with a light complexion. “I got the impression due to his stooped shoulders he was about thirty to thirty-five years,” Eddie said. “He looked just like you or me. If I met him tomorrow in a bar, I would know him instantly”.
A few seconds after the door was shut, “the craft started up… The hair on the back of my hands and neck stood up”, Laxton reported. “It sounded like a high speed drill. It lifted off the ground about fifty feet high and headed toward the Red River. In about five seconds it was a mile away.”
Laxton found 100 yards farther on the road other driver, C.W. Anderson of Snyder, Oklahoma, who also had seen the object in the mirror in his parked tank truck and he had also watched it fly away toward the Red River. After the story of both eye-witnesses appeared in local papers, other truck drivers came forward with reports of having seen similar objects along Highway 70 earlier that year.
William Laxton faithfully reported the incident to his employer, the Air Force. “A colonel and other officers wanted to see the spot where the object had been,” Laxton said. “I went out with them and showed them the place.
They asked me a lot of questions while their men searched the place with all kinds of instruments. They seemed to know just what they were doing.” In the Air Force files this object was officially recorded as “unidentified”. Consequently, it did not relate to the new secret military technology, and so the version in details just could be published.
The estimation of the tallness of “the pilot” by William Laxton may be beyond doubt. At the same time, his estimation of the weight as human one would scarcely be correct. The man consists mainly of water whereas the cybernetic person body would constitute, according to the hypothesis above, the thin-film shell of the human-like shape. The value “180 pounds” or “80 kilograms” seems to be exaggerated.
The real mass of the described person would be hundreds or even thousands times less. It is advantageous for the magnetic flight where the struggle for the mass minimizing is supposed to be no less than in aviation and rocketry. Besides, such a body structure and small mass is profitable because of great dynamic over-loadings which are typical for UFOs whereas the human water body is able to endure the maximal over-loading ratio to 10 (10 values of the free fall acceleration which is 9.8 meters per second in the second power).
If the object overcame 1,609 meters during 5 seconds with the constant acceleration, then the ultimate speed exceeded almost twice the sonic speed (the problem for a school pupil). However, nothing was said about the noise of the sonic barrier overcoming. The average ratio of the dynamic overloading is near 13 that exceed the human possibility to endure but a little. So, taking into account the possible small inaccuracy of the initial data, it is impossible to judge whether “the pilot” was a cybernetic person (inhuman) or a living one that would be just a purpose of the demonstration.
It was eloquent that “the machine” look had to convince that it was under somebody’s control. It had many signs that it is controlled by pilot: the transparent bubble in front, the porthole, the internal illumination, the door and the ladder. But all this sham was topped with Arabian ciphers on the fuselage side.
These ciphers appeared in the Middle Ages after Roman ones and they evolved little by little to the present day shape. They constitute the decimal numeration because of 10 fingers on human hands. For what did they need here? If the demonstration had to convince us of reality of the imagined neighboring civilization of ultra-creatures, thenthe last one might be essentially older and the figures would be others. Besides, number TL4768 allows about 9 million possible variants! Are these “machines” so plural?
Concerning aliens, are they not only of the same look as people but could they also work out independently absolutely same figures?! Similar ones are used on human’s aircrafts for the technical service on aerodromes and for searches in case of accident. Need they the same too?
Please, imagine the feeling of W. Laxton when the craft began ascent. He was an engineer. The machine before him was not an aircraft, or a helicopter, an aerostat, a dirigible… Then what was it?
At the same time, W. Laxton was not traumatized by the intensive magnetic field during the ascent of the vehicle. Consequently, the value of the magnetic field was not great, that is, the sham vehicle together with its “pilot” vas very light. Its magnetic track would not be intensive.
The described situation on the Highway 70 was eloquent. Several drivers were eye-witnesses of the similar or the same object before 23rd March 1966 but they kept silence. Then such a person was chosen to be the eye-witness who was a military service man and who could be neither silent nor the deceiver. In addition, he had the full set of features to perceive, remember, and publish the event. Further similar events did not occur after the publication in papers. Therefore, the last one seems to be the obvious purpose of the demonstration.
The conviction may grow up that UFOs tend to prevent us from understanding of their supposed real essence. They attempt evidently to persuade us that they are some kind of “vehicles” under control of “pilots”. The generally accepted opinion is just the same! The deceit is successful. Our problem is made in such a manner to be more complex and even, obviously, unsolved in principle: to clarify and to understand, who would be these artificial “pilots” if they are thought to be living creatures…
Unfortunately, John Keel and Igor Bunich (Russian writer of Gold of Party, Labyrinths of Madness, Bloody Games of Dictators, etc, and translator of J. Keel’s UFOs: Operation Trojan Horse [21] into Russian) “swallowed the bait” and they became adherents to the ultra-creature origin of UFOs (Section 12.1).
It may be suspected that UFOs wanted the ultra-terrestrial hypothesis to be accepted by all people but the aim is incomprehensible. To conceal fully their own presence seems to be more rational for them. Then to organize shows before our eye-witnesses would not be in need. Why do not they follow this simple way?
You were acquainted with two chosen cases of the demonstration of human-like persons in connection with landed UFOs. Finally, one of more intriguing examples will be: an appearance of a suspicious person without UFO presence. The story of Mrs. Ralph Butler (p. 165) [21] is cited exactly.
“Last May {1967}, a man came by here. He said he was Major Richard French, and he was interested in Citizen’s Band radio and in UFOs. He was about five feet nine inches tall with a kind of olive complexion and pointed face. His hair was dark and very long – too long for an Air Force officer, we thought. He spoke perfect English. He was well educated.”
This man was nattily dressed in a gray suit, white shirt and black tie. “Everything he was wearing was brand-new,” she observed. He drove a white Mustang, and her husband copied down the license number and had it checked out later. It proved to be a rented car from Minneapolis.
“He said his stomach was bothering him,” she noted. “I told him that what he needed was some Jello. He said if it kept bothering him, he would come back for some.” Early the next morning Major French drove up to the Butler’s house again. His stomach was still troubling him, so Mrs. Butler sat him down at her kitchen table and slid a big bowl of Jello in front of him.
“Did you ever hear of anyone trying to drink Jello?” she asked me. “Well, that’s what he did. He acted like he had never seen any before. He picked the bowl up and tried to drink it. I had to show him how to eat it with a spoon.”
Major French didn’t visit any of her friends, and it is something of a mystery why he singled the Butlers out. Later, she said, this same man turned up in Forest City, Iowa, and dropped in on some close friends of the Butlers there. There proved to be a Richard French in the Air Force in Minnesota, but he did not even remotely answer to the above description.” (End of the citation).
So, we may suspect similar human-like persons of an infiltration into the humanity for some imperceptible actions. John Keel considered just the same from the side of ultra-creatures without the explanation where they are located so closely that they can appear instantly to look at important events. However, it may be repeated that the Earth magnetosphere (Section 6.3) is vast enough to hold many curious UFOs in the full readiness at a relatively far (for us) distance.
Their geophysical monitoring, demonstrations, and way out of conflicts are only visible. We have no signs of their activity among us but very rare events, which are similar to described above, hint that the research, the observation of the people society and biologic world may be carried on constantly too. Moreover, this simple and effective way of observation might always be in the past. It is amazing and incomprehensible why UFOs, being so reticent and secretive, give sometimes evident hints of this matter.
The idea is old and (citation) “one of the first its adherents was RAF Air Marshal Lord Dowding. He commanded the Battle of Britain in 1940. He gave a public lecture in which he openly discussed the paraphysical aspects of the phenomenon and declared the UFO occupants were immortal, could render themselves invisible for human eyes, and could even take on human form and walk and work among us unnoticed” (p. 35) [21].
12.6. Interrelations
The word “interrelations” is applied here in the sense of the UFOs relation to the humanity on the one hand, the people relation to UFOs on the other hand and the information policy of both.
Representational paintings of UFOs by a primitive man are old enough. They are described in chronicles from times of the origin of written language. The disk for throwing in the track-and-field athletics has the eloquent lens form with the rounded edge. It is known from the deep antiquity. Was it not only the sport-tackle but also the ritual thing?
We do not understand what it is. Moreover, nothing may be said, when UFOs appeared in the atmosphere of our planet in general. It is said “our”, but who is the old everlasting resident and who is the temporary guest?
If UFOs originated in the Milky Way Galaxy and if they are the product and the cybernetic continuation of alien biological civilizations, then according to calculations at the end of the Section 2.6, some neighboring UFOs could theoretically be even older than “our” Solar System itself… The Solar System origin might be metaphorically “before their eyes” (but they might literally have no “eyes”). Having no other information about the duration of UFOs being here, it seems to be possible to think simply that constant UFOs presence always is not excluded, on the one hand.
On the other hand, the relatively slow known course of the geological history and of the biological evolution (billions of years) may be the indirect confirmation of the evidence of the full non-intervention of UFOs into these processes.
As far as we know, everything may be explained owing to only natural causes. It is not astonishing. The intervention into some process or into the natural evolution of something would break its natural course of events and would therefore depreciate the information received owing to such a clumsy study.
Consequently, the supposition about the intelligence of UFOs, about their constant neighborhood with us, and their policy of non-intervention does not compel to change anything in our knowledge about the nature and about mutual relations or to revise the history. They did not intervene in people’s affairs evidently even while critical moments of the history. Their heightened interest might only be visible in those cases.
The conclusion may be suggested in the first approximation that UFOs follow strictly to the policy of non-intervention. We do not encounter any hindrance from their side or attempts to change or to hasten something. It may be thought that such a situation was always. In a broad sense, the high ecologic culture is inherent in them.
If UFOs adhere strictly to their supposed ecologic culture not only near us, but also in Galaxy spaciousness, then the failure of searching of signs of “the nature transformation” by them may have the simple explanation, including the absence of “civilizations of the 3rd type according to Kardashev”, that is, “transformed galaxies”.
If the interstellar Galaxy space is the home and usual medium for the UFOs existence (Section 9.5), then they should not need forcible transformations of nature, including cyclopean constructions similar to the Dyson Sphere (Section 3.5 and Fig. 1.43).
It is not essential, whether the individualism and anarchy prosper among UFOs or, on the contrary, the discipline is present; whether they form either the compact society or, on the contrary, the descendants of several different civilizations are estranged from each other; it has no influence on us.
The policy of non-intervention is kept by everybody and some special instructions or agreements are not in need. Probably, it may be the high cosmic principle (instead of “star wars”). It would not be otherwise. We all are originated and we exist without any hindrance. It was told earlier, that the opinion about the UFOs aggressiveness and harmfulness seems to be not right.
Besides, the humanity is tied to the surface of the small planet on the periphery of the Galaxy and its lifetime is cosmologically small. What danger from our side may be? What would the rivalry be with the old cybernetic intelligence on the Galactic scale?
The artificial intelligence, which is forecasted to be created by people in the current 21st century, will also lag far behind UFOs the gigantic interval of time. It does not evidently represent for them either danger or rivalry. So, there are no grounds for their bellicosity.
Concerning the opinion about possibility of the artificial creation of the Earth living world and the human civilization by UFOs, to create artificially such a civilization has no logic because of backwardness in comparison with them and of the absence of natural evolution reasonable for a research. It would resemble some game.
On the contrary, the naturally originated new biological intelligence and civilization (our one), especially in the old Galaxy, seems to be extremely rare. Probably, it is only one for millions of years (Chapter 3) and unique but relatively short-term event. The human civilization could represent the young and probably original living intelligence or (and) the remote analogue of creators of UFOs ancestors.
There is an extraordinary situation. Descendants of bacteria, worms and fishes (ourselves), consisting mainly of water, are slightly intelligent. Moreover, human going out of the planet surface into space (20th century) and the creation of the artificial cybernetic intelligence (21st century) represent the relatively short-time events just today! Analogous initial steps must be kept in UFOs mind as the history of their own origin!
To remember and to see are different things. Let us resort to the analogy. The remains of marsupials are found on all Earth continents. Considering fossilized bones of animals, it is possible to imagine their livelihood, behavior, the movement manner, the process of the generation continuation and so on. However, this information would never be so full and evident, as the direct observation of living marsupial animals, where they lasted out till our days, namely within the Australian Continent.
Supposedly, UFOs are watching the most fascinating serial. There must be the big crowding in the environment of our small planet that we see today. Do we see all fully? One could think that real dimensions of their penetration into our world and into the human society are out of the limits of imagination.
“Who owns the information, owns everything!” [100] A knowledge accumulation, systematization and the mutual interchange might have the major sense of their existence.
Passing to the people relation to UFOs, the broad spectrum could be seen. People are very heterogeneous. Many people measure the situation by their own bushel. Is it possible: to be in everything stronger, wiser, more prompt and so on, and do not make with us that we would do, being on their place? One thinks therefore, that UFOs are not intelligent or the alien intelligence is absent in general.
The other extreme is the hope that UFOs will save us from our own problems. It is said even about religious sects. However, what is the reason for them to save us? Dependents would get up to every sort of stupid trick or create new problems, waiting to have the rescue.
On the contrary, the approaching natural end of the civilization would be significant and instructive for all. Possible precedents somewhere in the Milky Way might not be single. At the same time, the misfortune on the one small planet would not have an influence not only on the whole Galaxy but even on the nearest celestial bodies.
The golden mean is: to accept the principle of non-intervention, to show own maturity and so to equalize ourselves with all. We would be proud of the independent overcoming our problems and thus we should confirm the competence to be citizens of the Milky Way Galaxy.
The humans own misinformation prevailed recently because of the UFOs high interest to military objects and actions (Section 12.2). They were often surmised to be the reconnaissance vehicles of the potential enemy. Governments opened usually secret program of the information collection about UFOs. At the same time, reports puffed up in the opened press that UFOs would be the hoax, invention, deceit, mistake, etc. for the potential enemy misinformation if UFOs belong to him.
It became clear in the course of time that the reconnaissance information from UFOs had not been received by the potential enemy. The government program of the UFOs study was therefore closed but results and conclusions were not published because it was the secret. The misinformation campaign in the press was continued and strengthened in order to conceal from the potential enemy that own attitude to the matter was changed.
The described deception of whole nations continued during half a century. Fortunately, all exaggerated by human cannot be long-term. Little by little, we begin to understand the truth.
On the contrary, the UFO policy is stable and long-term. It represents the evident information blockade. UFOs can know about us almost everything. We know about UFOs almost nothing. The American writer Ben Bova called the situation “the policy of opened windows and closed doors”.
However, the problem has the ethical side. Patriarch of the Whole Russia was in a quandary why UFOs avoid a dialog [94]. The intentional hiding of information may be sometimes considered as the crime. It is at least unpleasant and it must obviously have some foundation. Let us think about such a situation.
The dialog would not bring for them anything new beyond all known about us and it would be obviously one-sided. Besides, their truthful answers may be undesirable or even harmful for us. The premature reception of certain knowledge is dangerous and it may be even disastrous. The classical example is the nuclear researches.
The mankind history shows that the contiguity of two civilizations, advanced first and backward second, had always tragic consequences namely for the second one. In our case, the difference of age reaches unthinkable terms… Is the dialog possible in general? Could we understand each other?
In passing, the impossibility of a dialog would confirm that we do not deal with aliens or “newcomers”, who should be probably understood by us. Quite another matter is the cybernetic (inhuman) mind after millions (billions) of years of the evolution during Galaxy cosmic travels… We ought to understand the gigantic spiritual abyss between us and them.
At the same time, the obvious logic is in fact, that the contiguity of advanced alien (UFO) and backward (our terrestrial) civilizations occurs at the place of inhabitation of the second one, which has the substantially low possibility of the conveyance in the cosmic space and the relatively short lifetime.
So, the probable unwillingness of our enigmatic everlasting neighbors to converse with us may be logical and purposeful for our own good and in order to avoid the spoiling of the received information about our independent evolution.
We must not be upset about their alienation. The contact with the extraterrestrial civilization, especially of such a kind, may bring the unforeseen consequences… It would confirm our suspicions. Could we surely forecast and understand fully the thing, which is out of scope of our comprehension?
At the same time, the dialog absence does not prevent from the global penetration of the external powerful intelligence into the human young society (the end of Section 12.5). Having no overt signs of their presence, we sometimes can see unusual inexplicable things with the possible purpose either to know the answering psychological reaction of humans or to give the false and counter-productive subject for thoughts.
We have to pay attention onto things which remain the mystery during centuries and which stubbornly do not yield to research and explanation up today. Are there some signs?
The interesting example among others would be one of the most scientific mysteries: the Piri Reis map compiled in 1513 [96]. It contains many details that could not be known in that time, for example, south continents and mountains on them. The coast of the Antarctic Continent is shown with the amazing accuracy without the covering ice!
Engineer Arlington H. Mallery considered, that the only method of the map fulfillment with such accuracy could be the aerial photography [86]. The last evidently was impossible for people in ancient times. At the same time, this information obviously would have no problem for UFOs together with under the ice coast owing to their geophysical monitoring (Section 12.4). The geographical information was quite harmless on the one hand.
On the other hand, the possibility of its alien origin occurred shocking to modern people. The logical opinion expressed by A.H. Mallery was removed at first from “Wikipedia” in English [96] and after that from its translation into “Wikipedia” in Russian [86] where the author of this popular research had had time to read it. However, how to deal with the amazing Antarctic coast under the ice? It is very simple. The accuracy of the map may be put in doubt [96]. “Wikipedia” invites somebody, who desires, to change the text.
If UFOs are really intelligent, then such a human reaction to a probable purposeful leakage of the harmless information would be seen and be instructive. Would the Piri Reis map be solitary occasion? So, probable dialog test readiness would not be overcome by us. On the other hand, the psychological and informational safety of the mankind must obviously have the paramount importance.
In order to have “a dialog”, even if partially possible, if only after centuries or millenniums, then firstly it is in need to behave ourselves adequately but secondly to take into account the global alien mind presence without a senseless fear.
Conclusion to the Part Four
Was the attempt to identify unidentified objects successful?
On the one hand, we go along the logical chain: cosmological time periods and distances are causes of a negligible small probability to communicate with somebody, excluding only one variant: when an intelligent subject is present near us; UFOs are under suspicion but their arrival demands their ability to exist and to work in the interstellar Galaxy space always; it is impossible for living beings; consequently, UFOs possess the cybernetic intelligence; in that case, their ancestors were evidently created by aliens who were far in time and space. It would be the only confirmation for us in general that aliens existed.
On the other hand, the author’s hypothesis about UFOs may have objectively only some probability to be right. There is too small hope to have its verification and strict confirmation, that is, to have the direct dialog with the alien cosmic intelligence represented possibly by UFOs because of objective causes (Section 12.6). However, the argument in the hypothesis favor would be both the logic of the interrelation of three owners of intelligence: people, aliens, UFOs, and integrity, completeness, and the absence of contradictoriness of the overall picture. It is not in need to dig down to depth. Everything is quite obvious and lies on the surface.
It may be added that an old cybernetic intelligence is opposite to the young biological one almost in all relations that also hampers the possible dialog. Its absence confirms indirectly that we see namely the old mind of the Galaxy origination.
To find the common language with aliens seems to be more attainable because of the supposed similar level of development and of the possible similarity of life problems of living beings in spite of probably different way of life.
Inasmuch as the dialog was always avoided by UFOs, it is difficult to suppose an occasion for the silence interruption by them. Even after thousands of years of the mankind development, the abyss between our and their mind would be huge.
Is our dream to be not alone in the Universe (in the Galaxy) achieved? Yes and no at the same time. The situation of the contiguity with the cosmic alien mind in detail could not be foreseen in principle. Our incomprehension would support our suspicion. There is a paradox again. On the one hand we would not be really alone in the World. On the other hand, we are alone because the communication with UFOs is problematic in spite of the neighborhood. But then the bellicosity is deprived of sense.
Our civilization may be new and the last one for the present moment in the Milky Way Galaxy together with hundreds of nearest galaxies (Chapter 3) after probably plural alien civilizations in the past. It would be now the unique, the most instructive, and interesting subject for observation.
On the contrary, cybernetic prolongations of the old civilizations would be plural and there would be lasting inhabitants of the Galaxy perceived as UFOs. So, the Fermi’s question “where is everybody?” may be answered “almost everybody is here!” But this “everybody” turns out to be “non-living” one and silent.
The situation seems to be usual and standard. Every alien biological planetary intelligent civilization in the past might attract the older cybernetic space intelligence which could direct somebody to the place. Aliens might be in the same situation with the communication problem as we are today. However, several of them would generate their long-live cybernetic civilization-continuation.
As a result, UFOs may not form the united community with the enough degree of probability. Each civilization or the association of several their civilizations would need their own reporter of human wars, catastrophes and so on (Major Holmes’ testimony, Section 12.2, and video of UFO presence while terrorist attack 11 of September 2001, Section 12.3). Consequently, one association might not like actions of others. The possible contradiction between them may be advantageous for some people affairs and for attempts to overcome partially the information blockade…
What might be changed in their policy when they could get to know that the real situation is understood by us? Many things, especially the natural history in the past, seem to be harmless information without dangerous consequences for us…
People’s activity estimation by UFOs is also interesting, including the human art. The most abstract art is music. It is the language which may be learned and one would feel the noble shock. Could the human musical genius excite them?
UFOs are evidently the unusual objects of research. They can avoid our study. In spite of this, important prompts would be found in the future in the course of time. One of the most needed things is the effective energy accumulation and the total highest efficiency owing to quantum processes. The energy gluttony could be avoided and our civilization would be transformed to be more lasting one!
Section 1.1 began from the philosophical determination of the intelligence in general. There was “the awareness of the existing reality around us, even in those parts, which are not directly related to the livelihood or vital activity of everybody who has mind”.
So, let us finish with the same thought. We are intelligent thinking creatures. People have always the interest in those parts of existing reality, including the Universe, the Galaxy, stars, planets, wonder of life. UFOs evidently stand in this range of things. We might consider them as the possessors of intelligence, as the important eternal part of the Surrounding World, as the subject for the cognitive process. We may also interpret them as the force, which did not hinder our arising and evolution. We may look at the World from the broadened point of view●
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